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1、資格筆試-學科知識與教學能力語言學篇粉筆教師招考粉筆教師1語言學概述 (P115)2微觀語言學3語言學跨學科分支第一節(jié) 語言學( linguistics )概述1. 概念:通過研究語言的各方面,揭示其本質及存在和發(fā)展的規(guī)律。第一節(jié) 語言學( linguistics )概述2. 分類:微觀語言學宏觀語言學語音學(phonetics) 音系學(phonology) 形態(tài)學(morphology) 句法學(syntax)語義學(semantics)語用學(pragmatics)語言學 (socio-linguistics) 心理語言學 (psycho-linguistics) 應用語言學 (appl
2、ied linguistics)語音學音音系學形態(tài)學語言學形句法學義語義學語用學3. 語言的本質特征 (P117)(1) 任意性 Arbitrariness:叫什么都可以(2) 二重性 Duality:兩種結構組成(語音+意義)(3) 能產性/創(chuàng)造性 Productivity:組成無數(shù)句子(4) 移位性 Displacement:站在草原望北京(5)Cultural transmission:的通過語言4. 語言的主要功能(functions of language)(1)信息功能 Informative function(2)人際功能 Interalfunction(3) 施為功能 Perf
3、ormative function(4) 情感功能 Emotive function(5) 寒暄功能 Phatic function(6)功能 Recreational function(7)元語言功能 Mingal function練Linguistics is the scientific study of.A. a particular languageC.human languages in generalB.the English languageD.the system of a country練習2_makes it possible for language users to
4、overcome thelimitations of time and space in communication.A. ArbitrarinessB. Duality CProductivity DDisplacement練習3That a wolf-child could never speak or think like a normalindicatesof human language.A. dualityB. cultural transmission Carbitrariness Dcognitive creativity4. 幾對重要概念(1) Prescriptive &
5、Descriptive(規(guī)定性和描述性)(2) Synchronic & Diachronic(共時性和歷史性)(3) Langue & Parole(語言和言語)語言:成員共有的語言系統(tǒng)?!叭恕毖哉Z:這些語言系統(tǒng)的具體表現(xiàn)?!皬埲钏耐醵樽印保?)Compentence & Performance(語言能力和語言表現(xiàn))語言能力:識別并理解句子的能力 (know)語言表現(xiàn):應用語言能力的行為 (do)練習Which of the following may illustrate the difference between “competence” and “performance”?A.
6、What aB. What aC. What aD. What a“knows” and what he/she “ does”. “can do” and what he/she “does”. “does” and what he/she “knows”.“does” and what he/she “can do”.英語語言學概述微觀語言學(P120)語言學跨學科分支語音學音音系學形態(tài)學語言學形句法學義語義學語用學一、語音學 (Phonetics)1.概念:研究語言聲音媒介的語言學分支學科。語音如何產生、轉化以及被感知。2. 語音分類(1)音素(phone/phoneme)的概念語音的最
7、小。(2)音素的分類 vowels(元音)單元音(Pure vowel/monophthong)/:/ /:/ / :/ /i:/ /u:/ / / / / / / /e/ /雙元音(diphthong)/a/ /e/ /a/ / / / /e/ /單元音的分類方式(1)舌頭最高部分的位置(position of the highest part of the tongue)前元音(front vowel) /i:/ / /e/ /中元音(central vowel) / :/ / /后元音(back vowel) /:/ /:/ / /u:/ /(2)舌頭抬起的高度(the highest
8、tongue rising)高元音(high vowel) /i:/ / /u:/ /半高/半低元音(middle vowel) /:/ / /e/ /:/ /低元音(low vowel) /:/ / /(3)元音的長度(length)或緊度(tenseness)長元音(long vowel)短元音(short vowel)(4)嘴唇的圓展度(Roundness)圓唇音(rounded vowel) /u:/ / /:/ /非圓唇音(unrounded vowel) 輔音(Consonant)分類:a. 發(fā)音方式(Manner of articulation)b. 發(fā)音部位(Place of
9、articulation)c. 帶聲性(Voicing; vibration of the vocal cords)若兩個輔音的發(fā)音方式和發(fā)音部位都一樣,可用帶聲性區(qū)分。清輔音(Voiceless sound)/p/ /t/ /k/ /f/ / /s/ / /h/ /tr/ /ts/ /t/濁輔音(Voicing sound)發(fā)音部位(Place of articulation)發(fā)音方式(Manner of articulation)雙唇音Bilabial唇齒音Labiodental齒間音Dental齒齦音Alveolar硬腭音Palatal軟腭音Velar聲門音Glottal音Stops/P
10、losivesptkbdgfsh摩擦音Fricativesvztr tst塞擦音Affricatesdr dzd鼻音Nasalsmn流音Liquids/Laterall r滑音Glideswj練In terms of the place of articulation, /t/ /d/ /s/ /z/ /n/ are all.A. palatalB. alveolarC. bilabialD. dental練習2/s/ and / can be distinguished by.A.B.C.D.manner of articulation place of articulation vibra
11、tion of the vocal cordsaspiration of articulation練習3The pair of English phonemesdiffer in the place of articulation.A. / and /B. / and /C. /d/ and /z/D. /m/ and /n/3. 語音變化(Vocal Variety)(1)連讀(Liaison)相鄰的兩個詞朗讀時連起來讀。 前一個詞以輔音結尾,后一個詞以元音開頭例:pick up; check it out/pikp/tekitaut/ 前一個詞以r結尾,后一個詞以元音開頭例:for exa
12、mple; remember it/frgzmpl/ /rmembrt/ 前一個詞以元音結尾,后一個詞以元音開頭例:who else; go away/huels/ /gwei/練In which of the following sentences does liaison ofsound appear most?A. Ms Black worked in an office last yesterday.B. I kissed it half an hour ago.C. Will you help us?D. Can you see the building?練習2How many li
13、aisons of sound are there in the sentence “Hebought an interesting book”?A. 0C. 2B. 1D. 3(2)失去(Loss of Plosive)/(incomplete plosive)全兩個音相連時,第一個“引而不發(fā)”,第二個。 六個音中任意兩個相鄰時,前一個音失去。例:doctor; blackboard 六個音后出現(xiàn)摩擦音或塞擦音時,音失去。/f/ /v/ /s/ /z/ / / / / /t/ /d/ /h/例:a big chance; good friend音/t/ /d/ 后面是/m/ /n/時,要改為
14、鼻腔。例:written; good morning音/t/ /d/后面是/l/時,失去。例:little; handle(3)同化(Assimilation)一個音受到的音影響變成了第三個音 /j/ 受到/s/ /z/ /t/ /d/ 的影響/d/+/j/=/d/t/+/j/=/t/s/+/j/=/z/+/j/=/例:would you; meet you; miss you; heres your book /n/ 受到/k/ /g/ /b/ /m/ /p/的影響/n/+/k/=/k/n/+/g/=/g/n/+/b/=/mb/n/+/m/=/mm/n/+/p/=/mp/例:pancake
15、; can go; ten men; ten people /z/ 受到/k/ /p/ /t/ 的影響/z/+/k/=/sk/z/+/p/=/sp/z/+/t/=/st/例:as can be seen; has to; newspaper /v/ 受到/k/ /p/ /t/ /g/的影響/v/+/k/=/fk/v/+/p/=/fp/v/+/t/=/ft/v/+/g/=/fg/例:have to; five past ten; I love girls練Which of the following is the proper pronunciation of “have to” as a re
16、sult of assimilation?A. /hef tu/B. /hev tu/C. /hf tu/D. /hv tu/練習2Thephoneme/ n/inthefirstwordofallthefollowing phrases changes to /m/ except.A. Open bookB. Open marketC. Brown paperD. Brown hat練習3The phrase “in bed” is pronounced asin real speech.A. /nbed/B. /mbed/C. /nbd/D. /mbd/語音學音音系學形態(tài)學語言學形句法學意
17、語義學語用學二、音系學 Phonology1. 概念:研究語音模式和語音系統(tǒng),并發(fā)現(xiàn)支配語音組合方式的規(guī)律并解釋語言變化的學科。2. 相關術語(1)音位(phoneme)語言中能辨別意義的最小的語音。(2) 最小對立體(minimal pairs):當兩個單詞除了出現(xiàn)在同一位置上的同一個音之外,其它的音都相同,這兩個單詞就是最小對立體。例:bag與beg, bag與back(3) 音位對立(phonemic contrast):最小對立體中的兩個音位出現(xiàn)在同一位置并能夠區(qū)別意義,這兩個音位例:wet與vet中的/w/與/v/即為音位對立。對立。練Sip and zip, tip and dip
18、, map and nap are all.A. minimal pairs B. diphthongsC. allophonesD. phonemes練習2Which of the following is NOT a minimal pair?A. cat/batB. put/butC. jig/pigD. sit/bit(4)音位變體(Allophone)同一個音位在不同語音環(huán)節(jié)中的實現(xiàn)方式。存在變體的典型音位:/p/ /t/ /k/ /l/例:peak /p/speak /p/team /t/steam/t/can /k/scan/k/ 互補分布(complementary distr
19、ibution):同一個音位的兩個不同讀音不能出現(xiàn)在一個語音環(huán)境中,并且不具有區(qū)別意義的作用,這兩個不同的讀音叫做互補分布。例如:lake milk 自由變體 (Free variation)相同的語音環(huán)境中出現(xiàn)了兩個音素,讀音不同,但不影響意義。例:either的英音/i:/ 美音/ai(r)/以及:pass, data, tomato,last, water3. 音系規(guī)則(phonological rules)(1) 序列規(guī)則(Sequential rule):支配音素組合順序的音系規(guī)則。例:如果一個單詞以/l/或/r/開頭,后面的一定是元音。(2) 同化規(guī)則(Assimilation r
20、ule)(3) 省略規(guī)則(Deletion rule):某個音拼寫存在但并不發(fā)音。例:knife; design4. 超音段特征(1)音節(jié)(syllable) 音節(jié)的劃分: 每個音節(jié)中必須有一個元音音素。tea, Chi-na, im-pos-si-ble 如果兩個元音字母之間只有一個輔音字母,輔音字母劃給al onset principle)。后面的音節(jié)。即節(jié)首最大化原則(例:la-ter; stu-dent 兩個元音字母中間有兩個輔音字母,第一個輔音歸前,第二個歸后。例:let-ter; cor-ner 兩個元音字母并列且無固定發(fā)音,各自劃為前后兩個音節(jié)。例:flu-ent; cre-at
21、e練習:劃分下列單詞的音節(jié)teacher professorcongratulation(2)重音(Stress) 單詞重音(word stress) 句子重音(sentence stress)a. 一般規(guī)律:實詞重讀,虛詞弱讀。實詞:名詞、實義動詞、形容詞、副詞、部分代詞、數(shù)次、感嘆詞等虛詞:冠詞、介詞、連詞、大部分代詞和非實義動詞b. 特殊情況:重讀想要強調的部分。例:Mary kissed Jim in the teachers office!練In teaching pronunciation, the teacher should tell the students that_can
22、 be used to convey more important messages.Arhyme Bstress Cdevoicing Drhythm練習2Which of the following shows the proper rhythmic pattern of the sentence?A. This is a question for Doctor Carrington.B. This is a question for Doctor Carrington.C. This is a question for Doctor Carrington.D. This is a que
23、stion for Doctor Carrington.練習3When a lady customer intends to buy a coat with white stripes, what is she supposed to place an emphasis on if she says to theshop assistant?A.B.C.D.Id like a red coat with white stripes. Id like a red coat with white stripes. Id like a red coat with white stripes.Id l
24、ike a red coat with white stripes. 語調(intonation)英語語調:升調(rising tone)、降調(falling tone)、降升調(falling- rising tone)、升降調(rising-falling tone)、平調一般規(guī)律:a. 一般疑問句讀升調;( ) 例:Are they playing tennis?b. 陳述句、特殊疑問句、祈使句和感嘆句讀降調;( ) 例:Tom went to school.How old are you? Give me the hat.How beautiful she is!c. 選擇疑問句和并
25、列句讀升降調;()例:Is that a bus ( ) or a car ( )?She bought an apple ( ) , two bananas ( )and ten eggs( ).d. 反義疑問句讀降升調。()例:Youre Tom ( ), arent you ( ) ?練習Which of the following words in bold is pronounced with a falling tone?A. Do you have any ideas?B. Therere few apples in the basket, are there?C. How ma
26、ny people, two or three?D. The flat has a kitchen, a living room, two bedrooms, and a bath.語音學音音系學形態(tài)學語言學形句法學意語義學語用學三、形態(tài)學 Morphology1. 概念:研究語素和構詞過程。2.詞素(Morpheme)(1)含義最小的有意義的語言,不能再分。詞素的功能就是單詞。(2)分類自由詞素和黏著詞素自由詞素(free morphemes) 可以單獨出現(xiàn),能夠例如:dog, mooncake單詞。粘著詞素(bound morphemes)無法單獨出現(xiàn),必須依賴于其它詞素,只能成為詞的一部
27、分。 詞根、詞綴和詞干詞根(root)是一個單詞去掉所有詞綴之后剩余的部分。不能在不破壞意義的前提下繼續(xù)拆分。例如:friendships,詞根為friend詞綴(affix)是只能附加在另一個詞素上單詞的詞素。分為前綴(prefix)、后綴(suffix)和中綴(infix)詞干(stem)是某個單詞去掉所有的曲折詞綴后剩下的部分。詞干詞根例: friendships ,詞干可以為friend, 也可以為friendship 屈折詞綴和派生詞綴屈折詞綴(inflectional affix):在詞干后添加,形成該詞干不同形式的詞綴,改變該詞的語法屬性,不例:-s, -ing, -ed, -e
28、r, -est。新詞匯。apple-apples; work-works; do-doing; work-worked; fast-faster- fastest屈折詞綴只有后綴形式。派生詞綴(derivational affix):在詞干前后添加的詞綴,通常能夠改變原詞干的意義和詞性。例:in-, dis-, un-, -ness, -ful, -able direct-indirectable-disable happy-unhappy happy-happiness use-usefulsound-soundable練Whichofthefollowingwordscontainsani
29、nflectionalmorpheme?ADisappear.BBlacken. COxen.DAnti-pollution.練習2In which of the following words does the affix “un-” play a different role?A. unlikeB. unbalance Cunearth Dunluckily練習3Whichofthefollowing sentences does NOT containderivational affix? AShe is a good teacher.BHer bravery is admirable.
30、CI value the brotherhood between us.DI loved him when I was young.(3)詞的形成(word formation):復合詞和派生詞 復合法 (compounding)。兩個或兩個以上自由詞素組合而成。a.向心復合詞(endocentric compound)的部分中,有一個詞是,其它部分用來修飾該詞匯。例:steamboat, foot-warmer, self-controlb.離心復合詞(exocentric compound)沒有詞匯。例:egghead, breakthrough, take-home 派生法 (deriv
31、ation)。在詞干加上詞綴得到新詞a. 加前綴 (Prefixation)前綴一般改變單詞意義,不改變詞性。例:agreedisagree;fairunfair;writerewriteb. 加后綴 (Suffixation)后綴一般改變詞性,少數(shù)改變詞義。例:differdifference; nationnational; teachteacher練習Which of the following is NOT a compound word?A. rainbowB. devalueC. withoutD. tablecloth(4)詞匯變化 創(chuàng)新詞 (invention)例: nylon
32、bokchoi 混成詞(blending):由兩個單詞各取一部分混合而成例:smoke + foog; modulator + demodulatormodem 截斷詞(clipping/abbreviation):截取舊單詞例:advertisementad; aeroplaneplane; influenzaflu 首字母連寫詞(initialism): 例:WTO; GRE讀 首字母拼寫詞(acronym):連讀例:APEC; PETS 逆構詞法 (back-formation)改造已有詞語。例:editoredit; emotionemote 類推構詞(analogical creat
33、ion)以一個或幾個形式為模型構詞的形式。例:white collarblue collar; gold collar; open collar; bright collar 借詞法(borrowing/loanword)可分為直接借詞、混合借詞、轉移借詞、翻譯借詞等。練習Which of the following is NOT an acronym word?A. SIMB. SARSC. GPSD. TOEFL語音學音音系學形態(tài)學語言學形句法學意語義學語用學四、句法學(Syntax)1. 概念:研究句子構造,解釋句子的內在規(guī)則。2. 句法范疇 (syntactic categories)
34、名詞/名詞短語(noun/noun phrase) 動詞/動詞短語(verb/verb phrase) 限定詞(determiner)形容詞(adjective) 副詞(adverb)代詞(pronoun)助動詞(auxiliary verb)介詞短語(prepositional phrase)語音學音音系學形態(tài)學語言學形句法學意語義學語用學五、語義學(Semantics)1.概念:研究語言的意義。2. 單詞間涵義關系(sense relations between words)(1)同義關系(synonymy):詞語意義上的相同或相近。盡管屬于同義詞(synonym),也會有一定的差別。 文
35、體(stylistic)差別。如buy和purchase 地域(dialectal)差別。如fall和autumn 搭配(collocational)差別。如accuse (of)和charge (with) 情感(emotive)差別。如thrifty和stingy語義(semantic)差別。如enough和ample練習Which of the following pairs is semantic synonym?A. statesman and politicianB. blow up and explodeC. lift and elevatorD. position and lo
36、cation(2)反義關系(Antonymy)反義詞(antonym)的關系: 等級反義(gradable antonymy)兩個詞之間存在中間狀態(tài),如 long-short; bi 互補反義(complementary antonymy)all肯定一方的同時是對另一方的。如boy-girl; absent-present 反向反義(converse antonymy)從兩個不同角度看同一種關系。如buy-sell; employer-employee練習The words “male” or “female” areantonyms.A. gradableB. complementaryC.
37、 converseD. complete(3)上下位關系(Hyponymy):種類和成員的關系。 上位詞( hypernym):vegetable; flower 下位詞(hyponym):carrot, cabbage; rose, violet(4)一詞多義(Polysemy)例: credit:學分;信用miss:丟失;錯過;想念date:日期;棗(5)Homonymy(同音/同形異義)同音異義(homophone)讀音相同,拼寫和意義不同。例:night & knight同形異義(homograph) 拼寫相同,讀音和意義不同。例:lead; research; bow; tear同形
38、同音異義(complete homonym) 拼寫和讀音相同,意義不同。例:bark; date3. 句子間涵義關系(Sense relations between sentences)(1) X is synonymous with Y (X與Y同義)X與Y在意義上是等同關系。若X為真,則Y為真;若X為假,Y也為假?!巴嫱佟?例:X: He was a bachelor all his life.Y: He never got married all his life.(2)X is inconsistent with Y (X與Y不一致)X與Y在意義上相互則X為假?!罢?假,假-真”,
39、若X為真,則Y為假;若Y為真,X: I live in.Y: I have never been to.(3)X entails Y/ Y is an entailment of X (X蘊含Y)當X為真,Y一定為真;當X為假,Y可真可假。“真-真,假-真假”例:X: Sue and Fred went to the party. Y: Sue went to the party.X: Leo has been toNew York.Y: Leo has been to the US.4.X presupposes Y/ Y is a prerequisite of X(預設關系)Y是X的前提
40、條件。說話者假設聽者已經知道的信息?!罢?真,假-真”例:X: Johns girlfriend is angry to him. Y: John has a girlfriend.另一種情況是出現(xiàn)在問句或祈使句中,話里有潛臺詞。例:“說!你什么時候偷的東西?”Dont step on my blanket!練X: John is married. Y: John is a bachelor.Whats the relation between these two sentences?A.B.C.D.X is synonymous with Y Y presupposes XX is inco
41、nsistent with YY is an entailment of X練習2X: My father is in the kitchen.Y: My father is at home.Whats the relation between these two sentences?A.B.C.D.X entails YX is a presupposition of Y X is an entailment of YX presupposes Y練習3X: My father is at home.Y: I have a father.Whats the relation between
42、these two sentences?A.B.C.D.Y entails XX is a presupposition of Y Y is an entailment of XX presupposes Y練習4“Can I borrow your car?”“You have a car.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes語音學音音系學形態(tài)學語言學形句法學意語義學語用學六、語用學 (Pragmatics) (P136)1. 概念:研究語言符號與使用者之間的關系。2. 言語行為(speec
43、h acts)(1)言內行為/發(fā)話行為(locutionary act)身。如:Today is Double 11.指說話這一行(2) 言外行為/行事行為(Illocutionary act)指話語之外的潛臺詞。如:Today is Double 11. (潛臺詞:我要買買買了)(3) 言后行為/取效行為(Perlocutionary act) 指說話后相應產生的影響或效果。例:Today is Double 11. (影響:老公清空了購物車)(4)直接言語行為(direct speech act)話語與使用語言完成目的之間有直接關系。如:Close the door, please.(5)
44、間接言語行為(indirect speech act)不直接說出間接完成。要表達的含義,而是通過另外的語言行為如:Im hungry.練習On hearing the utterance “ Its noisy outside”, the listener closed the door. It is a(n).A. locutionary actB. illocutionary actC. direct speech actD. perlocutionary act3. 會話含義理論 (Conversational implicature)(1)合作原則 (Cooperative princ
45、iple)。參與交談者必須遵循該原則,否則(2)合作原則的準則 數(shù)量準則( The將無法進行。of quantity):所提供信息的量。a. 所說的話應包含交談所需要的信息;b. 所說的話不應包含多于需要的信息。質量準則 (Theof quality)所說的話應力求真實,尤其是:a. 說話者要說真話,不要說假話;b. 不要說缺乏證據(jù)的話。例如: Were already working 25 hours a day, eight days a week.關系準則( Theof relevance)所說的話是相關的,不能答非所問。例:How old are you?Im fine, thank
46、you. 方式準則( Theof Manner):清楚明白地說出要說的話,尤其要:a. 避免晦澀;b. 避免歧義;c. 簡明扼要;d. 語言有序??偨Y數(shù)量準則:少說話質量準則:說真話關系準則:沾邊話方式準則:說人話練Which of the following might be Janes primary concern when she sincerely asks her friend “Does your farm contain 500 acres?”A. QuantityB. Quality.C.Relevance.DManner.練習2The expression “As far
47、as I know” suggested that peopleusually observe conversations.A. quantityB. qualityC. relevanceD. mannertheof_intheirdaily練習3A: Where does C live ?B: Somewhere in the south of France .If A wants to pay a visit to C, What to Bs reply?is flouted accordingA. TheB. Theof quantity. of quality.of relevanc
48、e.of manner.C.TheDThe4. 修辭學(Rhetoric)(P138)(1)明喻(Si)表達兩種不同事物之間的相似關系,一般用as或like連接。例:The snow was like a white blanket drawn over the field.(2)暗喻(Metaphor)兩種不同事物的對比是隱含的。He has a heart of stone.(3)轉喻/換喻/借代(Metonymy)一個詞或詞組被另一個與之有緊密辭方法。例如:一群紅領巾跑過來了。Only a knife could save him.的詞或詞組替換的修(4)提喻(Synecdoche)用局部代替整體或反之;以抽象代替具體或反之。例:They share the same roof.China beat Korea in a soccer game yesterday.轉喻主要借助于密切的關系與聯(lián)想,而提喻則是借助于部分相似。(5)隱喻/ 典故( Allusion)含義:
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