Lecture 4第二周.doc

Lecture 4（第2周） Semantic and Fuzziness.LectureFourSemanticBoundary,AmbiguityandFuzzinessWhatwordsarefuzzy?Lock(16321704):Classification2properties:primarypropertyandsecondaryproperty:Primaryproperty:extension（廣延）、mass（體積）、shape（形狀）、density（密度）和movement（運動）andsoonaremoreobjectiveandtherefore=Primary=clear=boundedSecondaryproperty:color（顏色）、sound（聲音）、smell（氣味）andsoonaremoresubjective,thus=Secondary=fuzzy=unboundedExamplesandIllustrationsPrimaryproperties:Square,round,triangle,rectangular平行四邊形,圓柱體,圓錐體donotdependonoursensestobesoandaremoreobjective.Therefore,Wecantelltheirdifferencesandtheyareneverfuzzy.Secondaryproperties:red,blue,white,black,beautiful,ugly,loud,softappealtohumansensessightsmellhearingandsoonforprecisenessandaremoresubjective,thereforeoftenfuzzyBigorsmall,farornear:ThisisabigmouseThisisasmallelephantTheystandneareachother./MyhomeisnearKoreaJourneytoBeijing/atriptothemoonMoreExamplesandExceptions山欲高，畫出之則不高，煙霞鎖其腰則高矣。（郭熙林泉高致）山欲高，白云繞其腰；水欲長，群山掩其源。咸與苦：爾雅釋言：“咸，苦也”。又有“苦即大咸”。郝懿行：“苦味近辛”（“辛”的意思是辣，所以“辣”字從辛）故言辛苦咸極必苦故淮南子地形訓(xùn)：煉苦生咸”Exceptions然而，大、小、高、矮等屬于第一性的概念同樣是模糊的。1米5的姑娘覺得1米7的男青年個頭高，1米7的姑娘覺得矮；1米7的男性和1米7的女性相比，顯得矮，身高接近2米的籃球隊員到了NBA也僅僅是個中等個頭。square/roundface:notprecisebutfuzzyPhonetic&PhonemicFuzzinessPhoneticSimilarity:Aprinciplefortheclassificationofphonemes:classifiedintoonephoneme/n,r,l/canbeclassifiedasonephonemeinsomeoftheprovincesinSouthChinaEvenwhenspeakingstandardChinese,thereareindividualvariationsinthewaywepronounceawordorasound.AmericanEnglishisarticulatedinperceivablydistinctiveaccentfromBritishEnglish,buttheycanmakethemselvesunderstoodbyspeakingdifferently.Equally,wespeakStandardChinesewithourownlocalaccent,wegetourmeaningsacrosswithlittledifficulty.Phonetic&PhonemicFuzzinessThankyou=3Q四指伸直=four;四指彎曲=wonderful.Why?斑竹=版主；粉絲=fans玉米=宇迷=超女李宇春之迷者涼粉=張靚穎之粉絲（fans的諧音）（參見徐盛桓2006：1824）。syntheticlanguageandanalyticlanguage:English(synthetic)andChinese(analytic)Standardandregionaldialects:馮奇/紅旗Theboundaryisfuzzy2.3SyntacticFuzziness:OldmenandwomenTheyareflyingplanesVisitingauntscanbeboring要死獵人的狗中國隊大勝美國隊/中國隊大敗美國隊2.3SyntacticFuzziness:TenseThepresenttense:HistoricalpresentStrictlyspeaking,begoingtoisapresenttense+progressiveaspect,butthemeaningisfuturetense2.3SyntacticFuzziness:抗震救災(zāi)、救死扶傷救火在家養(yǎng)病逃命、逃生恢復(fù)疲勞蓋被子打掃衛(wèi)生曬太陽很中國非?？蓸贰⒎浅Ｅ颂嚎屏宋椿榉?、未婚妻又當(dāng)?shù)?，又?dāng)媽不要太瀟灑住誰？住我！FuzzinessRelatedtoLogicalMattersand&or:合取與析取關(guān)系Johndoesnotsmokeordrink.Ihavenotimeorenergy.Howtoparaphrase:deepstructure?JohndoesnotsmokeandJohndoesnotdrinkIhavenotimeandIhavenoenergy.Chomsky:AspectsoftheSyntaxAll(none)oftheblue,green,red,and(or)yellowpennantsMarkednessandUnmarkednessOppositionbetweenmarkednessandunmarkedness:Howwideistheroad?Not:hownarrow?Thehighwayistwometerswide.Not:twometersnarrowSimilaradjectives:heavy/light,deep/shallow,big/small,old/young,far/near,long/short,many/few,good/badMarkednessandUnmarkednessNotallpairsofadjectivescanformmarkednessandunmarkednessoppositions:pretty/ugly:“Howprettyisshe?”presupposesthatsheispretty,notugly.Similarexamples:fat/thin,busy/free,sweet/odorous,great/little,clever/stupid,clean/dirty,noble/humble,strong/weak,simple/complex,true/false,brave/timidSenseofPerceptionConsiderthefollowing:WhatabigmouseItsasmallelephant100yuan=ahighpriceorlowprice?500yuan=ahighpriceorlowprice?Businessmenpurchasesecond-handfurnitureata“highprice”of100buttheyclaimtosellitata“l(fā)owprice”of500.Themeaningofhighandlowisfuzzy.Synaesthesia（通感）尖andsharp:senseoftouchButwecansay:尖（叫）聲、眼尖、耳尖sharpeyes/ears/tongue/voice瞎說觀音菩薩/觀世音菩薩SenseofPerception聞:InmodernChinese=smell孔子家語：“如入芝蘭之室，久而不聞其香?！盉utinancientChinese=hear:聽而不聞、聞所未聞、百聞不如一見、早有耳聞、聞訊趕來、聞名、舊聞、新聞、久聞大名魯迅阿長與山海經(jīng)：“推她呢，不動；叫她呢，也不聞?！蔽叮簭目冢赫f文解字：味：滋味但：從味覺引申到嗅覺：氣味、香味、臭味English:flavor:smelltasteSynaesthesia（通感）andfuzziness錢鐘書：“尋常官能，時復(fù)互用，心理學(xué)命曰通感?！比粘Ｉ钫Z言：“聲音尖”、“嗓子脆”、“聲音圓潤”文學(xué)語言：“聲音不但會有氣味哀響?zhàn)ァⅧB聲香，而且會有顏色、光亮紅聲、笑語綠、雞聲白、鳥話紅、聲皆綠、鼓（聲）暗。香不但能鬧，而且能勁。流云學(xué)聲，綠陰生靜。花色和竹聲都可以有溫度：熱、欲燃、焦。鳥語有時快利如剪，有時圓潤如丸。五官感覺真算得有無相通、彼此相生了?！盨ynaesthesiaandfuzzinessHarshaharshtexture(senseoftouch)aharshvoice(senseofhearing)aharshlight/color(senseofsight)aharshfood(senseoftaste)aharshodor(senseofsmell)Infactharshisusedasasupernym,ageneralword(perception)thatcoversthedomainsofdescriptivewords.上位概念詞PartIIICognitiveLinguistics3.1Categoryandfuzzinessgrammaticalcategory語類noun,verb,fuzzyboundariesbetweengrammaticalcategories:非常女人，做女人挺好的gomyway,semanticcategoryfishandman,drinkandeatfuzzyboundariesbetweensemanticcategories喝西北風(fēng)Heisabigfish.Categorization&Conceptualizationcategorization:proposedasanothertermincontrastwithcategory:category:staticproperty(defineboundaries)categorization:dynamicprocess(transcendboundaries)Conceptualization,categorizationandcategory:ConceptualizationisapsychologicalphenomenonCategorizationisaparole-languephenomenonCategoryisalinguisticphenomenonCategorizationisaresultofconceptualizationCategoryisaresultofcategorizationBoundary,Fuzziness,Prototype&Margins“Whatkindofbirdareyou,ifyoucannotfly”,saidthelittlebirdtotheduck.“Whatkindofbirdareyou,ifyoucannotswim”,saidtheduckanddived.(Prokofir,PeterundderWolf)thelittlebirdobservesthattheduckcannotflytheducksimilarlyobservesthatthelittlebird(asparroworablackbirdforinstance)cannotswimtheystillcalleachotherbird.birds:seemtosharethesamefeaturessuchasanimalfeatherswingslayingeggs&ponentialanalysis:notideallyapplicableforthecategorizationofnaturalkindssinceitallowsfuzzyboundariesinthecategorizationoftheentityitaimstorepresent.Boundary,Fuzziness,Prototype&MarginsDie:transitiveorintransitive?Hediedahero/diedagloriousdeath.他死了父親。買：買米打米/打醬油=打電話/打車（買？）買FuzzinessandMetaphorAristotle(Poetics:XXI,1457b):“givingthethinganamebelongingtosomethingelse,thetransferencebeingonthegroundsofanalogy”Quintilian(VIII,VI,1):“Theartisticalterationofawordorphrasefromitspropermeaningtoanother.”Traditionally:Atrope:anonstandardmeaningusedforitsliteraryeffectSimply:metaphor:A=BFuzzinessandMetaphorConsiderthefollowingThetruthisclear.Hewasblindedbylove.Hiswritingisopaque.Iseewhatyoumean.SEEINGdomain=KNOWINGdomaineasytosee=understandunabletosee=understandhardtosee=understandsee=understandBoundary,Fuzziness,DomainandDomainMappingKnowerTopicofunderstandingQualityofunderstandingintelligenceSeerThingseenQualityofvisionVisualabilityKnowingSeeingExampleofdomainmappingFuzzinessandMetaphorCognitiveLinguistshaveidentifiedalargenumberofconventionalizedmetaphors:DESIREISHUNGER:sex-starved/sexualappetiteHOPEISLIGHT:dimhopes,rayofhope,beaconlightofhopeLOVEISAJOURNEY:Wehavecomealongwaytogether/theirmarriageisgoingoff-track/werejustspinningourwheels.THEORIESAREBUILDINGS:Thistheoryhasnowindows/IexaminedthewallsofhistheoryFuzzinessandMentalSpaceMentalspace:temporarycontainerforrelevantinformationaboutaparticulardomain:OrlandoBloomisthenewJamesBond.IraqisthenewVietnam,asprotestsreturntotheairwaves.TwomentalspacesforBloomandBond:Britishactor:OrlandoBloom:intherealityspaceCharacter:JamesBond:inthemoviespaceTwomentalspacesforIraqandVietnam:Iraq:warwiththeU.S.:inthe2004spaceVietnam:warwiththeU.S.:inthe1970spaceFuzziness,MentalSpaceBlendingMentalspaceblendingismetaphoricalblending:(non-conventionalmetaphormapping)Example1Theresnotathingthatsmagicalaboutacomputer.Oneofthemostbrilliantthingsaboutacomputeristhattheresnothingupitssleeve.(DanielDonnet:Edge94,Nov19,2001)COMPUTERSAREMAGICIANSExample2:WithTrentLottastheSenateMajorityLeader,andGingrichatthehelmintheHouse,thelisttotheRightcoulddetestabilizetheentireShipofState.NATIONISSHIOFuzzinessandMetonymyClassicaldefinition:“Metonymyisatropethattakesitsexpressionfromnearandclosethingsandbywhichwecancomprehendathingthatisnotdenominatedbyitsproperword.”(RhetoricaadHerenniumbefore82A.D.Koch,1999:140141)Moderndefinition:“Metonymyisacognitiveprocessinwhichoneconceptualentity,thevehicle,providesmentalaccesstoanotherconceptualentity,thetarget,withinthesameidealizedcognitivemodel.”(Radden&Kovecses1999:21)Classicalexample:ThepenismightierthantheswordWritingessaysismorepowerfulthanusingweapons.FuzzinessandMetonymyMetonymy:beenstudiedforOver2000yearsbyrhetoricians200yearsbyhistoricalsemanticistsAbout2decadesbycognitivelinguistsExample1KennethlovesShakespeareShakespeare:notthepersonbuttheplaywrittenbypersonExample2TheWhiteHouseneveradmitsanerrorWhiteHouse:notthebuildingbutpeopleworkinginbuildingBoundary,FuzzinessandIdealizedCognitiveModelAnIdealizedCognitiveModel,ICMorFrameisthenamegivenincognitivelinguisticstothementalrepresentationknownas“meaning”.ItisamentalconstructwhichisrecruitedinaMentalSpaceaswethinkandspeak.IthasbeenproposedbyscholarssuchasGeorgeLakoffandGillesFauconnier.Boundary,FuzzinessandFrameHereistheessenceoftheframetheory:Whenoneencountersanewsituation.,oneselectsfrommemoryastructurecalledaframe.Thisisarememberedframeworktobeadaptedtofitrealitybychangingdetailsasnecessary.Aframeisadata-structureforrepresentingastereotypedsituationlikebeinginacertainkindoflivingroomorgoingtoachildsbirthdayparty.Attachedtoeachframeareseveralkindsofinformation.Someisaboutwhatonecanexpecttohappennext(Minsky1977:355).Boundary,FuzzinessandFrameaframe=amentalrepresentationofourknowledgeoftheworld,adata-structurewhichislocatedinhumanmemoryandcanbeselected,orretrievedwhenneeded.Aframeis“anetworkofnodesandrelations”(Minsky1977:355)whichseemtobestructuredindifferentlevels.Therearethefixedtoplevels,representingthosecomponentsofasituationthatarealwaystrue,andtherearethelowerlevels,whichhavemanyterminals,“slotsthatmustbefilledbyspecificinstancesordata”(Minsky1977:355PartIVFuzzySetTheoryWhatisFuzzySetTheory?Fuzzysettheoryistheextensionofconventional(crisp)settheory.Use:Ithandlestheconceptofpartialtruth(truthvaluesbetween1(completelytrue)and0(completelyfalse).ItwasintroducedbyProf.LotfiA.ZadehofUC/Berkeleyin1965asameanstomodelthevaguenessandambiguityincomplexsystems.CrispSet&FuzzySetDarkgraylevelsdefinedbycrispsetandfuzzysettheories:CrispSet&FuzzySetExplainedClassicalcrispsettheory:todefineasetofgraylevelsthatsharethepropertydark:weneedathreshold,saythegraylevel0-100.Allgraylevelsbetween0and100areelementofthisset,theothersdonotbelongtotheset.Fuzzysettheory:todefinethisset,weneedtwothresholds,e.g.graylevels50and150.Allgraylevelsthatarelessthan50arethefullmemberoftheset,allgraylevelsthataregreaterthan150arenotthememberoftheset.Thegr