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1、現(xiàn)代分析技術(shù)講義合編溫州大學(xué)化學(xué)與材料工程學(xué)院二00六年二月第一章X-ray DiffractionPrinciple and Experiments2005-2006一、前言1.1 目的 材料科學(xué)研究中,結(jié)構(gòu)與功能、性能聯(lián)系,以性能為導(dǎo)向,尋求和設(shè)計(jì)最適宜結(jié)構(gòu)化合物。性能與結(jié)構(gòu)相關(guān),又決定于成份和工藝,在新材料研制與開(kāi)發(fā),冶金生產(chǎn)過(guò)程,表面處理,腐蝕產(chǎn)物等分析中均有重要應(yīng)用。宏觀表象深入至微觀認(rèn)識(shí)。結(jié)構(gòu)參數(shù)信息為生產(chǎn)工藝改進(jìn),研制新材料、建立新理論提供依據(jù)。方法實(shí)質(zhì): X射線與物質(zhì)交互作用(相干散射是產(chǎn)生衍射花樣原因)。 衍射花樣三要素:峰位,峰強(qiáng)與線形。1.2 重要性當(dāng)今材料科學(xué)

2、研究中,功能意識(shí)加強(qiáng)以及結(jié)構(gòu)與性能聯(lián)系意識(shí)提高,期望以性能為導(dǎo)向,尋求和設(shè)計(jì)最適宜結(jié)構(gòu)化合物付諸實(shí)現(xiàn)。結(jié)構(gòu)參數(shù)信息給出新觀念,為生產(chǎn)工藝改進(jìn),研制新材料、建立新理論提供依據(jù)。材料性能與基本相和析出相種類,數(shù)量相關(guān)。相的形成又取決于成份和工藝制度,在新材料研制與開(kāi)發(fā)、冶金生產(chǎn)、表面處理、腐蝕與防腐等領(lǐng)域有重要作用。1.3 信息分析試樣屬何物質(zhì),那種晶體結(jié)構(gòu),并確定其化學(xué)式。原理:任何結(jié)晶物質(zhì)均具有特定晶體結(jié)構(gòu)(結(jié)晶類型、晶胞大小、質(zhì)點(diǎn)種類、數(shù)目分布)和組成元素。一種物質(zhì)有自已獨(dú)特衍射譜與之對(duì)應(yīng),多相物質(zhì)的衍射譜為各個(gè)物相行對(duì)譜的疊加。1.4 粉末法主要應(yīng)用(1)區(qū)分結(jié)晶質(zhì)與非晶質(zhì)。例如區(qū)分玻璃與

3、寶石。(2)判斷金屬加工前后金屬晶格的變化。(3)確定顆粒的大小和擇優(yōu)取向。計(jì)算顆粒度。(4)根據(jù)JCPDS鑒定表可以鑒定化合物以及混合物。(5) 測(cè)定晶胞參數(shù)、確定晶格類型、衍射群等。未知相自動(dòng)指標(biāo)化程序。(6) 通過(guò)晶胞參數(shù)的差異確定類質(zhì)同像變種及化學(xué)成分的變化規(guī)律。(7)可以用來(lái)研究非晶質(zhì)(如煤、玻璃等)的構(gòu)造。(8) 測(cè)定混合相中各化合物的含量。分辨率較高,測(cè)定時(shí)間一般很短,定性分析鑒定化合物相(即確定礦物成分),一般只需幾分鐘到十幾分鐘。不破壞樣品。 經(jīng)X射線測(cè)定后的樣品還可用于紅外、差熱等測(cè)試,因此,在科學(xué)研究中,應(yīng)先做x射線分析,再做其他研究。1.5 Crystals1晶體結(jié)構(gòu)與

4、空間點(diǎn)陣(空間點(diǎn)陣+晶體結(jié)構(gòu)的結(jié)構(gòu)單元)基本特點(diǎn):質(zhì)點(diǎn)(結(jié)構(gòu)單元)沿三維空間周期性排列(晶體定義),并有對(duì)稱性??臻g點(diǎn)陣:實(shí)際晶體中的幾何點(diǎn),其所處幾何環(huán)境和物質(zhì)環(huán)境均同,這些“點(diǎn)集”稱空間點(diǎn)陣。為簡(jiǎn)化晶體結(jié)構(gòu)提出。按對(duì)稱性分為七個(gè)晶系。晶體結(jié)構(gòu)中晶體結(jié)構(gòu)周期性與對(duì)稱性,原子排列的規(guī)律共七個(gè)類型。Bravais點(diǎn)陣Bravais(法國(guó)晶體學(xué)家)點(diǎn)陣:空間點(diǎn)陣中選取能反映空間點(diǎn)陣周期性與對(duì)稱性的單胞。要求:?jiǎn)伟嗟壤馀c角數(shù)最多棱間直角最多體積最小。1848年Bravais證明只有14種。14種Bravais點(diǎn)陣分4類:P簡(jiǎn)單;C底心;I體心;F面心。二、X射線衍射X射線的發(fā)現(xiàn)、波粒性W.C. R

5、öntgen discovered the X-rays(1895). he was honoured by the Noble prize for Physics (1901). W.H.Bragg and M.L.Bragg discovered X-ray diffraction phenomenon(1912). M.V.Laue discovered Laue experiment and Laue equation.C. G. Darwin developed dynamic theory of scattering of X-rays at crystal lattic

6、e(1912). Ware and quanta E=hv.A powder Pattern offer Informations2.1 X射線產(chǎn)生,X射線譜與特征譜The “x-ray” is generated by keV electrons hitting a target. When the incoming electrons are decelerated by the material, an EM wave is generated. This is the inverse photoelectric effect. X-ray tube: sealed, cooled by

7、 water, Filament x-ray tubesNow take these high energy electrons (up to 100,000 eV) and slam(猛烈撞擊) them into heavy atoms - any element.2 kinds of X-Rays are produced:“Bremsstrahlung”(韌致輻射)(Continuous x-rays)“Characteristic”The Principle of Generation.The Photoelectron Effect and characteristic Spect

8、rum GenerationEmissios Spectrum of a Mo X-Ray TubeExcite volt and Filter of X-ray Target2.2 與物質(zhì)交互作用相干散射:產(chǎn)生衍射花樣原因Bragg coherent scatteringXRD: Diffraction ConditionBraggs Law:constructive interference only when: The Bragg equation n = an integer is the x-ray wavelengthd = dhkl Debye-Sherrer CameraThe

9、 powder may be fitted to a glass fibre or into a glass capillary.A X-Ray film, mounted like a ring around the sample, is used as detector.Collimators shield the film from radiation scattered by air. A modern DiffractometerXRD: X-ray Tube (non-monochromatic)XRD: Q/2Q ExampleDiffraction: scattering of

10、 X-rays by periodic electron density diffraction reflection against lattice planes, if: 2dhklsinq = nlPolycrystalline sample has a number of peaks due to mixture of crystal orientations.Information contained in diffraction dataLattice parameters (a, b, c, a, b, g) obtained from the directions of the

11、 diffracted X-ray beams.Electron densities in the unit cell, obtained from the intensities of the diffracted X-ray beams. Electron densities ® atomic coordinates (x, y, z)The unit cell structure factor 2.3 衍射實(shí)驗(yàn)分析法多晶粉末法Reflection Planes in a Cubic Lattice晶體衍射 Bragg 公式 2d sin= nPowder X-ray Diffr

12、actionPowder Diffraction Pattern (diffractometer)三.  D8 ADVANCE 多晶X射線衍射儀3.1 D8 ADVANCE X射線衍射儀3.2 核心部件光源-高壓發(fā)生器與X 光管精密測(cè)角儀光學(xué)系統(tǒng)The Bragg-Brentano Geometry探測(cè)器原理3.3 控測(cè),數(shù)據(jù)采集與數(shù)據(jù)處理軟件 Soffware簡(jiǎn)介 Basic系統(tǒng)控制管理與數(shù)據(jù)采集軟件  EVA 基本數(shù)據(jù)處理軟件 X射線衍射應(yīng)用軟件l 數(shù)據(jù)采集儀器調(diào)整,測(cè)量方案(策略)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)測(cè)量,定量測(cè)量,高低測(cè)量,PSD,織構(gòu),應(yīng)力,(殘余)。l

13、60; 數(shù)據(jù)處理標(biāo)準(zhǔn)數(shù)據(jù)處理,定性分析,定量分解,鋁電解槽分析,線形分析,晶粒大小,織構(gòu)ODF,宏觀應(yīng)力,點(diǎn)陣參數(shù)/指標(biāo)化,精測(cè)點(diǎn)參,Rietveld ,Refectarmtring,HRXRD, GADDSl  現(xiàn)代化的軟件易于使用,強(qiáng)有力的圖形動(dòng)能,全譜擬合和自動(dòng)精修(Rietveld methods),完善的應(yīng)用,開(kāi)放系統(tǒng),高質(zhì)量的外觀(顯示,圖象)l  標(biāo)準(zhǔn)圖形用戶界面(Windows 2000)通用的視屏,快速點(diǎn)擊,易用,真正多任務(wù),其余Windows應(yīng)用的數(shù)據(jù)和圖象輸出,面向題目,上下文菜單。l 用microsoft word 打報(bào)

14、告。物相檢索對(duì)所有物相檢索,能分析多樣混合物,微量相和具有擇優(yōu)取向物相化學(xué)元素選擇可括明用戶數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)(實(shí)驗(yàn)、有機(jī)、礦務(wù)等),有那些元素,驗(yàn)?zāi)承┰?,分析中全譜可位移等。結(jié)果列表和顯示,(給出卡號(hào)、化合物名與化學(xué)式、Y標(biāo)度直接訪問(wèn)PDF2取數(shù)(由光盤(pán)直接檢索)PDF2,給出d、I、hkl卡片號(hào),還給出結(jié)晶學(xué)參數(shù)與相關(guān)數(shù)據(jù)。 數(shù)據(jù)處理Background SubtractionPeak SearchConventional Search with d/I-FileUnique Search with Raw DataComparison of ResultsSelection of Chemical

15、 ElementsSEARCH List and Display of ResultsDirect Access to PDF-2Report with Microsoft WORD定量相分析線性分析擬合函數(shù),給出峰參數(shù)。Crysige軟件,用Wanren-Auerbach法(給出結(jié)晶尺寸分布與相對(duì)柱長(zhǎng),均方根應(yīng)變分布,累計(jì)柱長(zhǎng)。Index and metric軟件,用Treor和ITO指標(biāo)化,并求點(diǎn)陣。Rietvcld(Topas)粉末晶體結(jié)構(gòu)精化,給出循環(huán)n次后的Rwp(權(quán)重線性均方殘差),一般10收斂即可,他表示總體計(jì)算譜計(jì)算與實(shí)測(cè)的吻合程度。Stress軟件,給出不同角下I-2曲線和經(jīng)

16、背底扣除,LPG修正后 K1的峰形,給出sin2-d曲線。Tex. ODF分析。Refsim軟件,給出實(shí)測(cè)與模擬精修后如層厚,密度、表面與界面粗糙度和層序。四試驗(yàn)方法-X射線衍射實(shí)驗(yàn)定性相分析(物相鑒定)4.1 儀器參數(shù)設(shè)定 儀器: D8 Advance X射線衍射儀 Cu靶,K1輻射,軟件扣除K2衍射峰 管電壓40kV,管電流40mA, 檢測(cè)器:固體探測(cè)器 Sol-X 掃描方式:/2步進(jìn)掃描,0.1 sec/step, 步長(zhǎng)0.01° 掃描范圍:10°90° 連續(xù)記譜4.2 實(shí)驗(yàn)步驟 a.試樣:固體試樣(粉末,固體片) 制樣:粉末壓片,固體片直接測(cè)試 b.收集數(shù)

17、據(jù) c.數(shù)據(jù)處理4.3 實(shí)驗(yàn)報(bào)告 實(shí)驗(yàn)?zāi)康模瑢?shí)驗(yàn)原理,實(shí)驗(yàn)方法,實(shí)驗(yàn)步驟,數(shù)據(jù)處理,實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果,討論第二章 紅外光譜法§1引言一、電磁波譜的一般概念DE = hn, n = c/l頻率大,則能量高。二、分子吸收光譜:1 轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)光譜, 分子所吸收的光能只引起分子轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)能級(jí)的變化,在遠(yuǎn)紅外及微波區(qū)域??蓽y(cè)定分子的鍵長(zhǎng)和鍵角。2 振動(dòng)光譜,分子所吸收的光能引起振動(dòng)能級(jí)的變化,多在中紅外區(qū)域,叫紅外光譜。3 電子光譜,分子所吸收的光能使電子激發(fā)到較高的能級(jí)。電子光譜在可見(jiàn)及紫外區(qū)域。紅外光譜是分子光譜,用于研究分子的振動(dòng)能級(jí)躍遷。 §2 基本原理1 紅外光波波長(zhǎng)位于可見(jiàn)光波和微波波長(zhǎng)之間

18、0.75-1000 mm(1 mm = 10-4 cm)其中:遠(yuǎn)紅外 0.75-2.5 mm中紅外 2.5-25 mm 4000-400 cm-1近紅外 25-1000 mm紅外光波的波長(zhǎng)常用波數(shù)(cm-1)表示。波數(shù)的定義:每1厘米范圍內(nèi)所含光波的數(shù)目。波數(shù) = 104/l(mm)。因此,2.5 mm波長(zhǎng),相當(dāng)于104/2.5 cm-1,即:4000 cm-1,而25 mm相當(dāng)于400 cm-1。2 紅外吸收 紅外吸收:一定波長(zhǎng)的紅外光照射被研究物質(zhì)的分子,若輻射能(hn)等于振動(dòng)基態(tài)(Vo)的能級(jí)(E1)與第一振動(dòng)激發(fā)態(tài)(V1)的能級(jí)(E2)之間的能量差(DE)時(shí),則分子可吸收能,由振動(dòng)基

19、態(tài)躍遷到第一振動(dòng)激發(fā)態(tài)(V0 ® V1):DE = E2 - E1 = hn 分子吸收紅外光后,引起輻射光強(qiáng)度的改變,由此可記錄紅外吸收光譜,通常以波長(zhǎng)(mm)或波數(shù)(cm-1)為橫坐標(biāo),百分透過(guò)率(T %)或吸光度(A)為縱坐標(biāo)記錄。 T % 愈低,吸光度就愈強(qiáng),譜帶強(qiáng)度就愈大。根據(jù)T ,譜帶強(qiáng)度大致分為:很強(qiáng)吸收帶(vs,T 10);強(qiáng)吸收帶(s,10T 40),中強(qiáng)吸收帶(m,40 T 90),弱吸收帶(w,T 90),寬吸收帶用b表示。 稀溶液中測(cè)得的紅外光譜,其譜帶的吸光度(A)可遵守BeerLambert定律: Aacl 式中a為吸光系數(shù),l為吸收池的厚度,c為溶液的濃度

20、。若c用mol濃度表示,則a用e表示,e為mo1吸光系數(shù)。a或e僅在定量分析時(shí)使用。紅外光譜用于結(jié)構(gòu)分析及結(jié)構(gòu)鑒定時(shí),均使用相對(duì)強(qiáng)度T (或A),此時(shí)所指的強(qiáng)吸收帶或弱吸收帶是對(duì)于整個(gè)光譜圖的相對(duì)強(qiáng)度而言。3 振動(dòng)自由度與選律 IR選律:在紅外光的作用下,只有偶極矩(Dm)發(fā)生變化的振動(dòng),即在振動(dòng)過(guò)程中Dm¹0時(shí),才會(huì)產(chǎn)生紅外吸收。這樣的振動(dòng)稱為紅外“活性”振動(dòng),其吸收帶在紅外光譜中可見(jiàn)。在振動(dòng)過(guò)程中,偶極矩不發(fā)生改變(Dm0)的振動(dòng)稱紅外“非活性”振動(dòng);這種振動(dòng)不吸收紅外光,在IR譜中觀測(cè)不到。如非極性的同核雙原子分子N2,O2等,在振動(dòng)過(guò)程中偶極矩并不發(fā)生變化,它們的振動(dòng)不產(chǎn)生紅

21、外吸收譜帶。有些分子既有紅外“活性”振動(dòng),又有紅外“非活性”振動(dòng)。如CO2: 對(duì)稱伸縮振動(dòng),Dm = 0,紅外“非活性”振動(dòng) 反對(duì)稱伸縮振動(dòng),Dm¹0,紅外“活性”振動(dòng),2349 cm-1 分子振動(dòng)當(dāng)作諧振動(dòng)處理時(shí),其選律為 DV ± 1。 實(shí)際上,分子振動(dòng)為非諧振動(dòng),非諧振動(dòng)的選律不再局限于DV ± 1,它可以等于任何整數(shù)值。即DV ± 1,±2,±3。所以IR譜不僅可以觀測(cè)到較強(qiáng)的基頻帶,而且還可以觀測(cè)到較弱的泛頻帶。 V。® V1 基頻帶(n) 較強(qiáng)。 V。® V2 一級(jí)泛頻帶(2n - a) 弱 V。

22、74; V3 二級(jí)泛頻帶(3n - b) 更弱, (a、b為非諧振動(dòng)的修正值,a b,bo) 例如非線性分子SO2的三種振動(dòng)方式(對(duì)稱伸縮振動(dòng),反對(duì)稱伸縮振動(dòng)及彎曲振動(dòng))均引起偶極矩的改變。因此,SO2分子的三種振動(dòng)方式在紅外光譜中均為“活性”振動(dòng)。 又如RCHO,CO伸縮振動(dòng)的IR:1740-1720 cm-1強(qiáng)吸收帶。 4 分子的振動(dòng)方式與譜帶 一般把分子的振動(dòng)方式分為兩大類:化學(xué)鍵的伸縮振動(dòng)和彎曲振動(dòng)。 (1) 伸縮振動(dòng) 指成鍵原子沿著價(jià)鍵的方向來(lái)回地相對(duì)運(yùn)動(dòng)。在振動(dòng)過(guò)程中,鍵角并不發(fā)生改變。伸縮振動(dòng)又可分為對(duì)稱伸縮振動(dòng)和反對(duì)稱伸縮振動(dòng)。分別用ns和nas表示。 (2) 彎曲振動(dòng) 彎曲振

23、動(dòng)又分為面內(nèi)彎曲振動(dòng)和面外彎曲振動(dòng),用d表示。如果彎曲振動(dòng)的方向垂直于分子平面,則稱面外彎曲振動(dòng),如果彎曲振動(dòng)完全位于平面上,則稱面內(nèi)彎曲振動(dòng)。剪式振動(dòng)和平面搖擺振動(dòng)為面內(nèi)彎曲振動(dòng),非平面搖擺振動(dòng)和卷曲振動(dòng)為面外彎曲振動(dòng)。 同一種鍵型,其反對(duì)稱伸縮振動(dòng)的頻率大于對(duì)稱伸縮振動(dòng)的頻率,遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)大于彎曲振動(dòng)的頻率,即nas ns d,而面內(nèi)彎曲振動(dòng)的頻率又大于面外彎曲振動(dòng)的頻率。 在紅外光譜圖中,除了以上的振動(dòng)吸收帶外,還可出現(xiàn)以下的吸收帶和振動(dòng)方式。 (3) 倍頻帶: (4) 合頻帶: 倍頻帶與合頻帶統(tǒng)稱為泛頻帶,(5) 振動(dòng)偶合: (6) 費(fèi)米共振:當(dāng)強(qiáng)度很弱的倍頻帶或組頻帶位于某一強(qiáng)基頻吸收帶附近

24、時(shí),弱的倍頻帶或組頻帶和基頻帶之間發(fā)生偶合,產(chǎn)生費(fèi)米共振。§3 儀器介紹及實(shí)驗(yàn)技術(shù)1 紅外光譜儀結(jié)構(gòu)及工作原理色散型雙光束紅外分光光度計(jì)結(jié)構(gòu)簡(jiǎn)圖示于圖17。包括紅外光源、單色器、檢測(cè)器、放大器和記錄儀五大部分。 2 Fourier變換紅外光譜儀70年代研制的Fourier變換紅外光譜,簡(jiǎn)稱(FTIR)主要由光學(xué)檢測(cè)和計(jì)算機(jī)兩大系統(tǒng)組成光學(xué)檢測(cè)系統(tǒng)的主要元件是Michelson干涉儀;見(jiàn)圖18(a) 通過(guò)樣品(S)到達(dá)檢測(cè)器(D)的干涉光的強(qiáng)度I將作為兩束光的光程差S的函數(shù)I(S)記錄下來(lái),經(jīng)過(guò)傅里葉變換(計(jì)算機(jī)處理),將干涉譜I(S)變成我們熟悉的光譜I(n)。除常規(guī)紅外光譜測(cè)試外,

25、FTIR的優(yōu)點(diǎn)在于:掃描過(guò)程的每一瞬間測(cè)量都包括了分子振動(dòng)的全部信息,檢測(cè)時(shí)間大大縮短,利于動(dòng)態(tài)過(guò)程和瞬間變化的研究。利用計(jì)算機(jī)儲(chǔ)存,多次累加大大提高信噪比,與氣相色譜聯(lián)用解決了痕量分析問(wèn)題。分辨率高且測(cè)量范圍寬(104-10cm-1)。3 實(shí)驗(yàn)技術(shù) (1)樣品池 紅外光譜測(cè)試所需的樣品池窗片一定要紅外透明,一般是NaCl、KBr等鹽晶制成.。 (2)紅外樣品制備 第三章 元素分析法 元素分析儀由主機(jī)(包括氧化還原反應(yīng)爐、氣相色譜柱、熱導(dǎo)檢測(cè)器)、電子天平、數(shù)據(jù)處理系統(tǒng)等組成,主要用于測(cè)定化合物的碳、氫、氮、硫元素百分含量。特點(diǎn)為精確、高效、操作簡(jiǎn)便。該儀器利用動(dòng)態(tài)閃燃和氣相色譜分離技術(shù),直截

26、了當(dāng)?shù)姆治雎肪€,全新的載氣電子質(zhì)量流量控制,使測(cè)試結(jié)果精確可靠。每次開(kāi)機(jī)測(cè)試,待儀器穩(wěn)定、標(biāo)樣校準(zhǔn)(約需兩個(gè)半小時(shí))后,一個(gè)樣品的四種元素同步測(cè)定12分鐘可以完成。 我院2000年8月購(gòu)置的該儀器是國(guó)內(nèi)從意大利進(jìn)口的最新型號(hào)1112型中的第一臺(tái)。CHNS-O測(cè)定預(yù)分析階段的氣路圖 氦流經(jīng)過(guò)螺線管閥EV2到氣流傳感器S1,并且直接通到氣流傳感器S2。這兩個(gè)氣流傳感器與相關(guān)的配比(proportional)閥EVP1、EVP2相連。與自動(dòng)進(jìn)樣器AS連接的配比閥EVP1控制經(jīng)過(guò)氣路的氦氣,直至螺線管閥EV3。該閥正常情況開(kāi)著,經(jīng)過(guò)排氣口(vent)4把氦氣排放到大氣中。配比閥EVP2控制R2,F(xiàn),C

27、C2組成的氣路直至螺線管閥EV4。該閥正常情況開(kāi)著,讓氦氣到達(dá)自動(dòng)進(jìn)樣器的點(diǎn)1,凈化樣品所在的區(qū)域。氧氣線O2與螺線管閥EV1相連,這個(gè)閥控制氧氣入口。Sequence of the Method Stages方法步驟的次序(中英對(duì)照)CHNS Determination During pre-analysis the solenoid(螺線管,圓筒形線圈) valve(閥,活門(mén),瓣膜,電子管,真空管) EV1 shuts off the oxygen flow, whereas the solenoid valve EV2 allows Helium to flow in the circu

28、it. 當(dāng)預(yù)分析時(shí),螺線管閥EV1切斷了氧氣流,而螺線管閥EV2允許氦氣在氣路中流動(dòng)。When Start Analysis is pressed, the valve EV1 opens, whereas the valve EV2 switches to allow Oxygen to flow in as far as the combustion reactor R1for the preset time.按下“開(kāi)始分析”鍵,螺線管閥EV1打開(kāi),而螺線管閥EV2切換到讓氧氣在預(yù)定時(shí)間流到燃燒反應(yīng)器R1。After a few seconds the sample, weighed in

29、 a tin container and stored in the autosampler, is dropped into the combustion reactor.幾秒鐘后,在錫容器中稱過(guò)、放在自動(dòng)進(jìn)樣器中的樣品掉落到燃燒反應(yīng)器內(nèi)。Tin, coming in contact with an extremely oxidizing environment, triggers a strong exothermic reaction. Temperature reaches approximately 1800 instantly causing the sample combusti

30、on.錫一開(kāi)始與極端氧化性的環(huán)境接觸,就引發(fā)強(qiáng)烈的放熱反應(yīng)。溫度達(dá)約1800 ,立刻使樣品燃燒。At the end of the time set for Oxygen introduction, the valves EV1 and EV2 return to their original position restoring the Helium flow.在設(shè)定的引入氧氣時(shí)間末尾,螺線管閥EV1和EV2回到初始位置,恢復(fù)氦氣流。The combustion products are conveyed across the reactor R1 where oxidation is co

31、mpleted. Nitrogen oxides and sulfur trioxide possibly formed are reduced to elemental nitrogen and sulfur dioxide, and Oxygen excess is retained.燃燒產(chǎn)物穿過(guò)完成氧化的反應(yīng)器R1傳輸,可能形成的氮氧化物被還原為單質(zhì)氮和二氧化硫,過(guò)量氧氣被擋住。Then the gas mixture ( N2, CO2, H2O and SO2) flows into the gas chromatographic column( 氣相色譜柱) CC1 where s

32、eparation occurs.然后N2, CO2, H2O和 SO2的氣體混合物流進(jìn)氣相色譜柱CC1,氣相色譜柱里發(fā)生分離。The eluted(洗提過(guò)的) gases are conveyed (傳輸)to the thermal conductivity detector TCD that generates electrical signals(電子信號(hào)), which, properly processed(處理) by the Eager 300 software, provide the Nitrogen, Carbon, Hydrogen and Sulfur percent

33、ages contained in the sample.洗提過(guò)的氣體傳輸?shù)綗釋?dǎo)檢測(cè)器TCD,熱導(dǎo)檢測(cè)器產(chǎn)生電子信號(hào),電子信號(hào)被Eager 300軟件恰當(dāng)處理提供樣品的氮、碳、氫、硫百分含量。Oxygen DeterminationNo switching of valves.沒(méi)有氣體閥切換。When Start Analysis is pressed, the sample weighed in a silver container and stored in the autosampler, is dropped into the reactor R2 where it undergoes

34、 instant(迅即) pyrolysis (熱解).按下“開(kāi)始分析”鍵,在銀容器中稱過(guò)、放在自動(dòng)進(jìn)樣器中的樣品掉落到反應(yīng)器R2內(nèi),在R2內(nèi)馬上起熱解反應(yīng)。During pyrolysis, N2, CO and H2 form. The pyrolysis products cross the adsorption filter(吸附過(guò)濾器) F where halogenated (鹵化的)compounds (chlorine, bromine, etc.) are retained.熱解時(shí)N2, CO 和 H2形成。熱解產(chǎn)物穿過(guò)吸附過(guò)濾器F,鹵化化合物(氯、溴等)被擋在吸附器內(nèi)。Th

35、e gas mixture flows into the chromatoglaphic columns CC2 where carbon monoxide(一氧化碳) is separated from the other gases.氣體混合物流進(jìn)氣相色譜柱CC2,氣相色譜柱內(nèi)一氧化碳與其他氣體分開(kāi)。Then the eluted gases are conveyed to the thermal conductivity detector TCD that generated an electrical signal, which, properly processed by the E

36、ager 300 software, provide the Oxygen percentage洗提過(guò)的氣體傳輸?shù)綗釋?dǎo)檢測(cè)器TCD,熱導(dǎo)檢測(cè)器產(chǎn)生電子信號(hào),電子信號(hào)被Eager 300軟件恰當(dāng)處理提供氧百分含量。最重要部分已在上面,以下是講義全文Operating manual of Flash EA1112Handbook :給出某主題最重要信息。Manual :指出怎樣做,怎樣使用機(jī)器。如教師手冊(cè)teachers manualChapter 1 Preliminary information1. classification (類別系統(tǒng))of the instrument environm

37、ental conditions (1)internal(內(nèi)部的)use.(2) altitude up to 2000 meters.溫州海拔最高1611米(泰順白云尖)浙江海拔最高1921(龍泉黃茅尖)1857(慶元百山祖) (3)temperature from 15 to 35 .(4)maximum relative humidity between 30% and 85%.空氣中實(shí)際水蒸氣密度(或壓強(qiáng))和相同溫度下飽和水蒸氣密度(或壓強(qiáng))的百分率值。(5)voltage variation not exceeding ±10% of the nominal value.(

38、6)transients (瞬態(tài),瞬變值)according to installation categories(類別。范疇) II.(7) degree of pollution according to IEC 664 (3.7.3)2IEC interindustry emmision control 工業(yè)間排放控制注意:離子交換色譜縮寫(xiě)也是IEC (ion exchange chromatography)2 Technical features(1) instrument configurations(2) detector: thermal conductivity detecto

39、r (TCD)熱導(dǎo)率(導(dǎo)熱系數(shù)):其他條件不變時(shí),熱導(dǎo)率愈大則導(dǎo)熱量愈大。單位瓦/(米·開(kāi))(3) instrument control: EAGER 300 software for Windows (4) power supply : 230Vac; 50/60 Hz; 1400VA(5)dimensions: height500mm( 540 with fittings); width depth(6) weight3 safety information use of gases (1) helium (He) as carrier gas (2)oxygen as gas

40、for sample oxidation.Purity of gases(1) Gas chromatographic for He. (2) Minimum 99.995% for O2nominal pressure of gasses 250kPa for He and O2instrument safety safety cut-off deviceInstrument cleaning Instrument configurationsCHNS-O analyzer: for the determination of the amount(%) of carbon, hydrogen

41、, nitrogen, sulfur and determination of oxygen, contained in organic and inorganic chemical products and in substances of different nature and origin, be they solid, liquid or gaseous samples.Section 1 Description (Chapters 2-4)Chapter 2 structure of the instrument (analytical section and control se

42、ction)1 analytical sectionfurnaces Each furnace consists of a quartz candle ( 火花塞,電嘴 ) surrounded by an electrical resistor,. The candle is plunged in a refractory material housed in a metal compartment.(1) Furnace Temperature : The temperature is monitored by a thermocouple of Pt-Pt/Rh %type approp

43、riately located in the furnace.(2) Furnace Cooling: The cooling time varies according to the operating temperature setting.thermal conductivity detector (TCD) It is located in a thermostatic chamber at controlled programmable temperature. This chamber also accommodates the analytical column.Chromato

44、graphic ColumnsThe Chromatographic Column performs the chromatographic separation of the reaction products generated during the combustion or pyrolysis process. The column can be kept at room temperature, or it can be placed in the thermostatic chamber of the TCD detector according to the instrument

45、 configuration.Adsorption FiltersThey can be made of glass or plexiglass(有機(jī)玻璃 ).Polymethyl methacrylate 聚甲基丙烯酸酯;膠質(zhì)、化學(xué)、耐熱、不碎玻璃Reactors These are tubes made of quartz or special alloy filled with different materials according to the instrument configuration.Autosampler It performs the automatic inject

46、ion(注射、注入、噴射、投入) into the reactor of samples.2 Control SectionPneumatic (氣動(dòng),壓縮空氣的,風(fēng)動(dòng)的) Compartment Pneumonia 肺炎 severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS).It consists of several lines fitted with an electronic flow controller(EFC), which ensures the switching between helium and oxygen, and controls th

47、e flow values.Electronic CompartmentIt comprises the electronic boards for the instrument power supply and control.Chapter 3 Instrument Description1 Front Panel1 Access to the furnaces 2 synoptic(概要的,天氣圖的,說(shuō)明書(shū)的) panel (面板,控制板,配電盤(pán),鑲嵌板油畫(huà)板,大會(huì)議中專門(mén)小組)3 Access to the thermostatic chamber2 Rear Panel 1 pane

48、l for connections (including interface section, gas inlet section, electrical section.) 2 cooling fan 3. transformer(變壓器)compartment.3 Top Panel fittings(附件,配件,零件, 用品,設(shè)備,器材) for mounting (裝配,安裝,鑲嵌)and securing (保證,防護(hù),緊固,關(guān)緊) the furnaces reactors. fittings for gas connection.4 Furnaces compartmentThe

49、 furnaces compartment can be reached from the instrument front and removing (lifting )the cover. The furnaces are accessible by removing the protecting plate.The furnaces can reach 1100 .5Fixing plates for the reactors These plates, on top of the furnaces compartment, accommodate (1)connections and

50、fittings for the reactors.(2) automatic sampler6 Fittings for gas connectionsThey are located on the middle bottom (底部)part of the instrument rear panel. Gas inlet ports are directly connected to the EFC(electronic flow controller).Gas inlet pressure must be set as indicated above.250kPa= 2.50bar=36

51、.27psi (pounds per square inch)7 Detector compartmentIt is located on the right front part of the instrument and can be reached by opening the door. It houses the thermal conductivity detector (TCD), located behind the protecting plate and the gas Chromatographic Column8 Access (通路,接近,進(jìn)入) to the det

52、ector (檢測(cè)器,探測(cè)器) open the right side door to have access to the thermostatic chamber,To reach the detector: (1) remove the adsorption filters from the fastening clips. (2)undo the 4 fixing screws on the protecting plate.9 Description of the detection system10 Electrical compartment(間隔,區(qū)劃,間,艙,室,箱,格,格板

53、,部分) (1) low voltage section (2) mains voltage section (3) EFC(electronic flow controller).for gas regulation.11 Connections panel (including 1 interface section, 2 electrical section i.e. power supply, 3 gas inlet section )12 Transformers compartment 13 Synoptic panelThis panel shows the instrument

54、 operating conditions, and it is located on the right side of the instrument front panel.Each synoptic is provided with a LED(light emitting diode),which lights up when the relevant function is active. 1 power on When lit, the instrument is powered.2 ready: When lit, the instrument is ready to run a

55、nalyses3 run: When lit, an analysis is in progress.4 stand by (待機(jī),站在一邊,準(zhǔn)備行動(dòng),備用,支持,遵守) When lit, the instrument is in stand-by condition. During this condition, gas flows are decreased to 10 ml/min, and the furnaces temperature is reduced 50% of the set value.5 wake up: When lit, the instrument has b

56、een programmed for a timed automatic startup (READY condition).6 Furnace On :Two LEDs are provided, one for each furnace. When one is lit, the relevant furnace is powered.7 Oven On: When lit, the detector oven is powered.8 TCD : When lit, the detector filaments (燈絲) are powered.9 STOP (Safety Cut Off): It lights up when an alarm (警報(bào),告警,非常信號(hào))condition occurs.Cut off 截止,斷開(kāi),關(guān)車,停汽,停電,斷流,關(guān)閉,結(jié)束工作,保險(xiǎn)裝置14 Autosamplers MAS 200 Autosampler for solid samplersIt is mounted directly on the connecting fitting of the concerned reaction tube. It consists

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