西方語言學理論與流派劉利民.doc

Thats one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind 1. What is language? 2.Features of language: duality;productivity;displacement; arbitrariness; cultural transgression; interchangeability3.定義：Saussure: Language is a system of signs, as systemic means of communicating by the use of sounds or conventional symbols.American structuralists: Language is a systemic structures. Language is a product of social communication.(Social linguistics) Language is a system of psychological and cognitive signs. Language is a system of finite arbitrary symbol combinations generated on the basis of limited rules.(Chomsky) 索緒爾：其他學科的研究對象時是客觀給定的，而語言學研究的對象則是需要界定的。 關于語言語義的界定到目前為止尚未得到統(tǒng)一。 學者的觀點肯定對其語言學方法有著重大影響。 語言是一門科學，那什么是”科學“？Etymology : scientia meaning to know in Latin. An abstracted or summarized konwledge of experieces.- A systematic way of thinking ( inductive 歸納 deductive 演繹 abductive 溯因.）Inductive: This horse has four legs. And that horse has four legs. All horses have four legs.Deductive: Mother:put on your cotton coat. Son: why? M: it makes you warm. Son: cotton coat can make me warm. Then it must warm everything. He covered a piece of ice with his coat. When he opened the coat, and on the contrary to his precedent thought that the ice had melted into water, he surprised at that the ice is still there. Then he drew a conclusion that mother told a lie. Logical thinking and critical thinking are important.德里達Jacques Derrida以其“去中心”觀念，反對西方哲學史上自柏拉圖以來的“邏各斯中心主義”傳統(tǒng)，認為文本（作品）是分延的，永遠在撒播。德里達的批判矛頭直指結(jié)構主義語言學理論。悖論：比如：解構理論認為一切都是解構的。那么解構理論能否解構解構理論本身呢？再比如： “ 我在說假話?！蹦敲?，這句話是真還是假？- A system of methods and of terms知識是一個個的命題。-A series of principles .(systematicity, exhaustiveness, objectivity, consistency , economy )If your theory is simple enough and can explain broad parts of phenomena, then that theory is a qualified scientific theory. 理論是用來解釋現(xiàn)象的。每一個理論都是有簡單的定理組成,能夠完美解釋現(xiàn)象。 E=mc2 is the most beautiful formula in the world of physics because it is simple enough and explains the high speed movement in the universe. 科學知識的哲學認識論基礎： 經(jīng)驗論 Empiricism 和唯理論 Rationalism語言學的流派也可以這樣分為兩塊。1. 經(jīng)驗論：empiricism基本立場：一切知識最終來源于經(jīng)驗，即感知資料（sense-data), 在此，觀察與實驗很重要。 Knowledge is from observation and experience. 這個是針對亞里士多德的：知識的可靠性要依賴邏輯的可靠性。比如三段論：人總是要死的，我是人，我是要死的。大前提正確，小前提正確，結(jié)論正確。這里的問題在于大前提的正確是哪里來的？過去的經(jīng)驗不一定意味著將來的邏輯一定成立。懷疑論者休謨說，農(nóng)場里的鵝總在早上九點得到食物，于是認為早上九點，主人必定帶來食物，結(jié)果一天早上九點，主人帶來的是一把刀。 如何建立大前提的可靠性？observation 目標：經(jīng)驗現(xiàn)象背后的原因。方法：觀察observation與歸納induction知識的標準模型standard model：實驗科學。Standard experiments, physics, chemistry and so on 2. 唯理論 rationalism 基本立場：懷疑經(jīng)驗的可靠性，認為只有運用推理能力才能獲得知識：以求真知都由無可懷疑的（ 先驗 a priori ) 第一原理推論出來。（ 經(jīng)驗是不可靠的）I think therefore I am. 目標：知識的邏輯普遍性方法：邏輯推論 logical reasoning 知識的標準模型standard model：數(shù)學 mathematics現(xiàn)代語言學研究途徑：秉承西方哲學精神，語言學家對語言的本質(zhì)（什么是語言）與什么構成語言學知識的看法決定了其研究路徑和學派傾向。語言研究的三大途徑：1. 定性研究 - 唯理論的形式化抽象2. 定性研究 - 經(jīng)驗論的觀察和推論 （ 中國語言學文章很多是這個范圍）3. 量化研究 - 實證論的實驗研究 1）定性研究 - 唯理論的形式化抽象 定性研究（qualitative research )指非實驗的，一般不以數(shù)據(jù)形式表達的研究。通過邏輯分析或觀察等，考察研究對象具有何種屬性或特征，對象之間具有什么關系等，力圖對研究對象的性質(zhì)作出闡釋?，F(xiàn)象：中國語言沒有明確的主語。中國隊大敗/大勝日本隊。王冕七歲死了父親。中國語言是人治的，西方語言是法治的。王力 2) 定性研究qualitative research - 經(jīng)驗論的觀察和推論 著眼于觀察語言的使用并對此進行考察。代表性學科：語用學、系統(tǒng)功能語法、認知語言學 求知是人的本能。3）量化研究 （ quantitative research ) 是實驗科學的主要方法，及通過嚴格控制變量來觀察時間的發(fā)生與變化，歸納出關于對象的認識。這種研究的信息都用數(shù)據(jù)來精確表達，以保證研究結(jié)果的客觀性。（ 得出的結(jié)論只能是相對的）Three stages of linguistics study語言研究三步驟：1、觀察observation（資料收集和整理 data collection and compilation）2.概括generalization（分析資料得出模型organizing data into general patterns and models ）3formalation.構想 （語言普遍性的理論 formulized theory of language universals） Difficulty of linguistics study語言研究的艱難：1. Object of study is more complex than that in any other sciences研究的對象比任何學科都復雜；If you Kick a ball, kick a dog, kick a boy , can you predict the route it rolls, acts?-humans action is out of control because there are many variables. Any subjects that are concerned with human being, they are must be very difficult to be accurate. In Medicine field, many high-tech equipments are used to inspect in order get exact data. But it is difficult to say that inception results are accurate and just as a reference. Individual difference. 2.language used to talk about language itself用語言來研究語言本身；3.implausibility to cover all language phenomena幾乎不能窮盡語言現(xiàn)象；4.a private phenomenon based in the brain大腦深處的活動結(jié)論：Notorious for many schools of thought, with no unifying ideology. (依然是一門臭名昭著的學科）Theoretical(structure, principles ) , applied( teaching, translating)Diachronic( historical, change) , synchronic( languages as they are)Micro-linguistics( solely with the language system eg. structure, syntactic, phonetic) macro-linguistics (related to lan. Culture, psychology, computer ) 學科體系：1. 傳統(tǒng)理論語言學（音系、句法、語義學等）2. 應用語言學（語言教學、翻譯等）3.認知語言學（構式語法等）4. 語用學（認知語用）5. 社會語言學（人類語言學、文化語言學）6. 心里語言學（神經(jīng)語言學、病理語言學）7. 數(shù)理語言學（邏輯語言學、統(tǒng)計語言學）1. Traditional grammar2. Structuralism (American behaviorism 3. Formalism (TG grammar, Montague grammar)4. Functionalism (systemic-functional grammar)5. Empiricism cognitive 古印度（400BC ？）：Vedas 吠陀經(jīng)Panini: want to keep the beauty of classics Contribution：the principles of grammar study : exhaustiveness , consistency and economy ( 窮盡性、一致性、經(jīng)濟性）In natural science, simplicity is regarded as beauty. Einsteins formula E=mc2 is the best one. Ptolemy : the earth is the center. Copernicus: sun is the center（補充：潘尼尼的偉大著作八書是一部梵語語法著作。它極為詳細地描寫了梵語的每一個屈折變化、派生現(xiàn)象、組織結(jié)構和各種句法用法。印度語言研究主要集中在三個方面：一般語言理論和語義，語音和音位，語法描寫，最突出的表現(xiàn)在語音學和音位學）Ancient China ( 500 BC last least ）漢語有單詞嗎？Great debate on Name and Actuality ( 名詞之辯，先秦）孔子：正名。語言與現(xiàn)實的脫節(jié)dislocation of language and behaviors（ 循名責實，現(xiàn)實的東西應該符合語義規(guī)定的內(nèi)涵、意義。那么語義規(guī)定從哪里來呢？法先王。這是一種唯心的，保守的方法論。 ）老子：道可道，非常道。名可名，非常名。墨子：以名舉實圓：一中同長也。墨子The actuality can not comply the meaning of names. The use of the names should comply the actuality. 名家：物莫非指，而指非指。（詭辯家）白狗黑，龜比蛇長，天地一樣高代表人物：惠施鑒于儒家，道家，陰陽家等大量研究。應該下功夫研究墨家，名家等。爾雅類似詞典。文心雕龍是文學書。說文解字是文字書。 Linguistics：A Brief History（）的筆記1.蘇格拉底 What Is .西方哲學的核心學科是形而上學，形而上學的核心問題是What is？對語言研究產(chǎn)生的影響：奠定了語言結(jié)構研究的基礎，所創(chuàng)造的語言術語仍用至今。A foundation laid for language structure research. Terms such nouns , verbs . were invented that are still the basic vocabulary for linguistics today.Plato: the Idea(理念，相）2.柏拉圖 理念論 （抽象的概念）Idea : the unchangeable essence of thingsMeaning: the essence of things embodied in language: The essence theory of language.語言表達的是事物的本質(zhì)象聲詞、基于自然事物的比喻。整個語言就是模仿自然的本質(zhì)。. 蘇格拉底Socrates question : What Is .(justice,knowledge,courage) ?哲學在古希臘產(chǎn)生原因 a separation of language from its user and context of use. 這是形而上的，就是靜止的，片面的，割裂的，機械的來思考問題。西方哲學的核心學科是形而上學，形而上學的核心問題是What is？The core of metaphysics is What IS.對語言研究產(chǎn)生的影響：奠定了語言結(jié)構研究的基礎，所創(chuàng)造的語言術語仍用至今。A foundation laid for language structure research. Terms such nouns , verbs . were invented that are still the basic vocabulary for linguistics today.Plato: the Idea(理念，相）2.柏拉圖 理念論 （抽象的概念）Idea : the unchangeable essence of thingsMeaning: the essence of things embodied in language: The essence theory of language.語言表達的是事物的本質(zhì)象聲詞、基于自然事物的比喻。整個語言就是模仿自然的本質(zhì)。九章算術與幾何原理比較九章是實用算法，幾何是邏輯推論，思維方法的科學與否非常重要。It is fault to use foreign terms and methods to study Chinese. We should invent a new set of grammatical system to study Chinese. 亞里士多德的觀點Aristotle: distinction of grammar and logicBasic philosophical stand:Being: form + substanceHe distinguished letters, syllables and words and defined words as the smallest meaningful unit of language. He further distinguished conjunctions, phrases, sentences, in addition to nouns and verbs, etc. The shape of language is grammar.（form）What language refers to: proposition.(命題) (substance)后來的語言學界好多人仍然這么區(qū)分語言和意義。Meaning is a very great headache. 語言學的意義問題是研究語言人的噩夢。Conventionalist view: It is Reason and not just instinctive natural imitation that guides language. 趨勢就是更加規(guī)范化，更加簡化。Stoics: expanded Aristotelian foundation of logic, and laid a foundation for traditional grammar. Alexandrian( for literary criticism) Belief: language is inherently pure. Goal of grammar research: to explain the language of classical authors and prevent the corruption of the Greek language. 強化了書面語的研究Greek contribution: emphasis on word features, instead of on structures.Protagoras: 3 genders of GreekPlato: nouns and verbsAristotle: conjunction/ tense of GreekStoics: common noun普通名詞/proper noun專有名詞; inflexions of cases; Transitive及物/intransitive不及物的; active /passiveAlexandrians: adverbs, participles, pronouns and prepositionsThrax(100BC): The Grammar of Greek 世界第一本真正意義上的語法書Varro: the grammar of Latin 拉丁語法。Varros grammar was not original, but important in inheriting the Greek tradition, with the purpose of describing the grammar of the best writers, instead of the language of their own day. 傳統(tǒng)語法是研究經(jīng)典作品的書面語。這個傳統(tǒng)直到索緒爾Saussure才改變。Medieval PeriodDominant language: study of Latin, the universal language in education, diplomacy, scholarship and culture. Primacy was still given to the written speech.University: quite a lot of noble and wealthy young men idled everyday and they come together and wanted to learn something to kill time. They invited all kinds of people to speak to them. Those who were invited are called professors. The root of professor is profess, which means to speak. Professor is simply a speaker. 老三藝：拉丁，歷史，文學（哲學）Philosophical arguments: do the language universals have any reality? 一個語詞的意義到底是實在的還是非實在的？ 一個詞語到底是如何和現(xiàn)實世界發(fā)生關系的？這個問題至今沒有統(tǒng)一的答案。中世紀研究語言的目的是我們?nèi)绾卫斫馐澜?，如何理解人生，是從哲學的角度去研究的。Renaissance periodVernacular languages 本國語言 attracted attention, but grammar was regarded as “the art of speaking and writing correctly. ”the task of grammarians was to describe “good usages” in order to prevent corruptions or barbarianisms(including loans, technical terms, slang etc.)語法學家：Arnauld (1612-1694)Lancelot (1615-1695)Traditional Grammar:1. Prescriptive in principle2. Practical, normative and semantically oriented3.中國第一部語法著作馬氏文通 Thrax 斯拉克思 （100BC) 語法科學（屬于帕加馬學派，與亞歷山大學派持對立觀點）Varro 瓦羅 論拉丁語（用希臘語法的理論和范疇來描寫和分析拉丁語） Medieval period主要特征：學習拉丁語，拉丁語作為教育、外交、學問和文化的通用語。以書面語為首。Nominalists唯名論者 - Realists 唯實論者哲學爭議：Do the language universals have any reality ?(一個語詞的意義是實在的還是？）語法：a philosophical theory of parts of speech and theri characteristic mode of signifying.文藝復興時期 Vernacular languages(本國的、地方的語言） attracted attention, but grammar was regarded as the art of speaking and writing correctly , （比如英語，但是還是研究書面語）The task of grammarians was to describle good usages in order to prevent corruptions or barbariannisms ( including loans , technical terms , slang etc ) 試借詞、科學術語、俚語等為腐朽的、粗俗的語言。傳統(tǒng)語法：1、Prescriptive in principle (規(guī)范）2、Practical , normative and semantically oriented;（目的是為了教學，實用的，有遵守的模式，以語義研究為方向。如傳統(tǒng)語法是根據(jù)意義來劃分詞類的）3、Rationalism in essence （唯理主義者） 普遍唯理語法 Human reason is universal and therefore human languages and their grammars have universality.（喬姆斯基運用了這一理論。）書籍有Theoretical books 和Practical books教學要用Teaching grammar,研究是theoretical grammar20世紀前50年，傳統(tǒng)語法在以研究英語語法為主中得到了快速的發(fā)展。O. Jespersons Contemporary English Grammar R. Quirks A Grammar of Contemporary English第17、19世紀 歷史比較語言學Zeitgeist（時代思潮）: 1) Scientific romanticism 科學浪漫主義門捷列夫的元素周期表2) Evolutionary point of view進化論3) Discovery of Sanskrit 梵文Sanskrit shared the same source of many old European languages.Theories proposed as explanations:1) Pure co-incidence2) Inter-language borrowing3) Common descendents of an Ursprache (protolanguage)源始語德國學者提出的比較語法學Comparative grammar : linguistics should search for new knowledge about language families, just like comparative anatomy brings new light to natural history.The Goal: searching for the Ursprache or Protolanguage.Method: comparison of languages, to find laws例如，拉丁語P音，到日耳曼語，變F音德國學者Schleicher A summary of the previous work of protolanguage reconstruction; believing that language is governed by the same operational and developmental laws as any other natural phenomena and therefore the precision methods in physical sciences are to be applied in language research. On the basis of the found data, he drew the family tree of Indo-European languages. 全世界一共八大語系（靠讀音來劃分）。Indo-European, Sino-Tibet（聲調(diào)是語言）, 等 Schleicher System施萊赫爾體系孤立型語言原始不利于表達精確的思維 it is not suitable to express exact thinking or logical thinking, it is at the stage of primitive development.比如漢語。黏著型語言過度 比如日語曲折性語言高級階段 比如德語但是他稱英語是退化語言。分析語言是松散的。綜合語言是縝密的,詞語之間的關系有詞尾變化來表達，即曲折變化Summary of historical comparative linguisticsContributions:1.identification of language types2.classification of language familiesEx.a. inflexional b. isolating c. agglutinative JunggrammatikersThe goal of language study is not for the reconstruction of the dead Ursprache.Language is not a natural but psychological phenomenon. Language change not because of evolution, but of individual psychological association.Two principles:1. that the laws of phonetics are the same as those in physics, which do not allow for any exceptions;2. that new forms are constructed by analogy, i.e., some words and forms are taken to be the criteria to which the other words and forms are to meet up to, and in this process new words and forms are constructed.Defects:Their proclamation that only the historical comparison is THE scientific study of language, to the exclusion of other language studies.Wilhelm von Humboldt 馮洪堡 影響后來的語言學家Chomskyan TG grammarHallidays SF grammar馮洪堡從人類的精神（human spirit）是一致的假設出發(fā),認為人類語言盡管差異很大但都代表人類精神的。所以，他反對語言歧視。著作論人類語言結(jié)構的差異及其對人類精神發(fā)展的影響，洪堡特語言哲學文集。認為：語言：是人類精神的創(chuàng)造性活動，一種世界觀。每學習一種新的語言，這個世界給你一個新的窗口，獲得一種新的對世界的認識。語言學： 透過語言進行關于人類精神的研究；從語言素材考察語言的普遍性，從而把握人的共性與差異。落腳點是“人”。所有學問如果不是為人服務的，那是很難想象的。SAMPLES OF HIS STATEMENTS:跟語言有關的一切，都只能比擬為生理學的過程，而不能比你為解刨學過程；語言中沒有任何靜止的東西，一切都是動態(tài)的。語言不是精神產(chǎn)品，而是精神不由自主的流射。每一種語言都包含一種獨特的世界觀。人從自身中創(chuàng)造語言，而通過同一行為，他也把自己束縛在語言之中。海德格爾：語言是存在之家。Theoretical contributions:1. 區(qū)分語言與言語 語言：言語作品的總和，體現(xiàn)于言語活動本身2. 語言的內(nèi)在形式 句法與語義結(jié)構：內(nèi)部規(guī)律，純智力活動的軌跡，語言的恒定本質(zhì)3. 系統(tǒng)觀：有限規(guī)則的無限運用4. 類型學分類：孤立語，粘著語，屈折語Self-contribution in his theory: 語言是民族精神；平等對待一切民族的語言、文化?！百H低一種語言不僅意味著辱沒了最獨特的人類本性，而且也與每一種通過深思熟慮和語言實踐而形成的正確認識觀格格不入?！庇W語言，特別是希臘語和梵語，卻是最理想的語言，因為“語言中有效的生命原則主要依賴于語言的曲折作用?！比祟愓Z言的精確是靠曲折來表達的。有曲折的才是唯一正確的形式。His comments on the Chinese language:“它的形式或許比任一其它語言的形式都更好地突出了純思維的力量，正是由于含有摒棄了所有細小的，會起干擾作用的聯(lián)系音，才使得心靈能夠更全面、更有力地把我純粹的思想?！薄皾h語的結(jié)構顯露出明顯的缺陷：漢語習慣于把語音孤立，分割開來；”“在漢語里，完全要靠聽話人自己努