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人因工程學(xué)的組織結(jié)構(gòu)作者:查爾斯佩羅人因工程學(xué)關(guān)心的是設(shè)備設(shè)計(jì)與操作員工的生理和心理特征是否一致的問(wèn)題。人因工程學(xué)給設(shè)計(jì)工程師建議,但是其組織內(nèi)容又會(huì)局限他們的影響和想法。這篇論文討論的內(nèi)容解釋了為什么軍隊(duì)和工業(yè)的高層人事管理不同于好的人因設(shè)計(jì),展示了社會(huì)機(jī)構(gòu)是如何喜愛(ài)選擇集中權(quán)威和降低那些做出不合理錯(cuò)誤歸因的操作員工技術(shù)要求的工藝。我們需要探索處于良好狀態(tài)的認(rèn)知地圖和心智模式的設(shè)備和系統(tǒng)設(shè)計(jì),以及技術(shù)社會(huì)的結(jié)構(gòu)模式。介紹復(fù)雜的軍工系統(tǒng)中設(shè)備和操作工的相互作用使近期災(zāi)難在高科技系統(tǒng)中發(fā)生上升。15英尺的大堤下面在有原子核能量的植物里有相同的小的數(shù)字密碼開(kāi)關(guān),精密的的軍隊(duì)武器不能瞄準(zhǔn)甚至有時(shí)不能開(kāi)火,如此昂貴的精密的軍用飛機(jī)很少能飛過(guò)它們或向它們武器開(kāi)火,船只碰撞而官員們?cè)谄诖粋€(gè)科技奇跡即能解決人和機(jī)器問(wèn)題的一個(gè)防沖突雷達(dá)設(shè)置。這篇文章講述了一個(gè)尚未探索的方面—人和機(jī)器的問(wèn)題,即通過(guò)分析這兩者的組織結(jié)構(gòu)內(nèi)容及聯(lián)系,那就是,其組織結(jié)構(gòu)如何影響設(shè)備的設(shè)計(jì),以及如何運(yùn)用新的設(shè)備反應(yīng)其組織結(jié)構(gòu)。設(shè)備設(shè)計(jì)者有責(zé)任采取經(jīng)營(yíng)者和維修人員的特點(diǎn)來(lái)考慮他們的設(shè)計(jì),這才是真正的人因工程師(HFE),第二次世界大戰(zhàn)前可能只有一小部分人是,但現(xiàn)在的數(shù)字或許是5000名工程師和工程心理學(xué)家。這門(mén)學(xué)科也稱為人體工程學(xué),并在歐洲,叫人類(lèi)工程學(xué)。HFEs試圖擴(kuò)大該范圍,設(shè)計(jì)工程師通過(guò)觀察操作員和維修人員的生理和生物學(xué)特性。那時(shí)候我會(huì)嘗試擴(kuò)大HFEs的范圍通過(guò)建議他們?cè)O(shè)備操作功能對(duì)社會(huì)和組織環(huán)境中的作用。鑒于很多恐怖的事情比如設(shè)備的設(shè)計(jì)不良難以適應(yīng)人類(lèi)的能力,我確保第一個(gè)任務(wù)是參加操作員的生理和心理的特點(diǎn),但更為廣泛的關(guān)注這里提供的也很重要,它表明,為什么HF建議被忽視和HFEs的組織是這么小,并建議采取措施糾正這種情況。它還認(rèn)為,其組織理論能夠受益于設(shè)備的設(shè)計(jì)和組織結(jié)構(gòu)之間的關(guān)系,受到忽略的話題除了一些歷史研究。而不是確定的組織結(jié)構(gòu)工藝,看來(lái)機(jī)器及設(shè)備設(shè)計(jì),它是加強(qiáng)現(xiàn)有的結(jié)構(gòu)和復(fù)制在新的環(huán)境這些結(jié)構(gòu)。組織結(jié)構(gòu)以及人機(jī)介面可能會(huì)導(dǎo)致意外,一個(gè)令人關(guān)注的地方存在著潛在的災(zāi)難性的問(wèn)題,因?yàn)樵谶@樣的考慮這里的許多軍事和工業(yè)系統(tǒng)。本論文的某些論點(diǎn),更詳細(xì)地討論了其他地方(佩羅,1984年)。設(shè)計(jì)問(wèn)題加上材料,物理革命,它已成為可能的需求,如更快的速度,力量,可操作性,能夠在比以往更多的敵意的環(huán)境中(外空,風(fēng)暴工作在從軍事和工業(yè)設(shè)備,電子產(chǎn)品更高的性能水平海,霧方向機(jī)場(chǎng))或者接近人口密度,瞬時(shí)通訊在很遠(yuǎn)的距離,和物質(zhì)享受,以船員或乘客,最后,以滿足更多的容量或輸出無(wú)休止的需求。更高的系統(tǒng)性能已經(jīng)達(dá)到了三種方式改變經(jīng)營(yíng)者的作用:要求更高的技能和服務(wù)水平,降低運(yùn)營(yíng)任務(wù)被動(dòng)監(jiān)測(cè),或自動(dòng)化工程白話,(這是“清除循環(huán)的人”功能)。高壓,高負(fù)荷工作,更復(fù)雜的任務(wù),需要高認(rèn)知特點(diǎn)的商船甲板人員,宇航員的作用,飛行員和航空運(yùn)輸在他們參觀的職責(zé),核,化學(xué)工廠經(jīng)營(yíng)者在緊急情況下的關(guān)鍵階段,以及像戰(zhàn)斗機(jī)飛行員和坦克指揮官一般。被動(dòng)監(jiān)測(cè)在長(zhǎng)的特點(diǎn),他們的巡演,敵偵察系統(tǒng)例行飛行階段和海洋船員和核武器和化學(xué)工廠經(jīng)營(yíng)者,如區(qū)分了靜態(tài)的陰極射線管敵方潛艇的軌道,機(jī)載監(jiān)視系統(tǒng)。所有這些系統(tǒng)都具有在運(yùn)營(yíng)商的角色,自動(dòng)化裝置的例子,第三改變完全繞過(guò)運(yùn)營(yíng)商。這些變化的系統(tǒng)中,導(dǎo)致在運(yùn)營(yíng)商及其設(shè)備之間的界面設(shè)計(jì)問(wèn)題,在維修間的人員和裝備界面還的問(wèn)題。高需求模式和生物威脅的能力超過(guò)了經(jīng)營(yíng)者的身體;被動(dòng)監(jiān)測(cè)模式鼓勵(lì)非技術(shù)化,單調(diào)和低系統(tǒng)的理解,導(dǎo)致精神低落,產(chǎn)量低,缺乏技能和應(yīng)付意外緊急情況或甚至變化的系統(tǒng)狀態(tài)。經(jīng)營(yíng)者進(jìn)行設(shè)計(jì),通過(guò)自動(dòng)化控制系統(tǒng),在緊急情況下或不正常的條件下減少他們的系統(tǒng)理解和干預(yù)能力。在緊急情況下干預(yù)或當(dāng)不正常的條件下,設(shè)備復(fù)雜的事實(shí)。它的維修保養(yǎng)往往成小包裝,無(wú)法使空間展開(kāi)。這種先進(jìn)的系統(tǒng)的高費(fèi)用的建設(shè)和營(yíng)運(yùn)可減少訓(xùn)練時(shí)間,增加了失敗的代價(jià)。有時(shí)是很難讓操作員使用新設(shè)備去提高系統(tǒng)性能,因?yàn)樗麄儾恍湃嗡鼈?,發(fā)現(xiàn)它們也難以操作,或者覺(jué)得他們使之更難以達(dá)到的性能指標(biāo)。海軍飛行員有抬頭顯示器(HUD)的計(jì)算機(jī)生成甲板上的飛機(jī)的形象當(dāng)他們登陸時(shí),它們是匹配的形象,在他們的擋風(fēng)玻璃上,有明確的塑料預(yù)測(cè)他們認(rèn)為實(shí)際的甲板上,從而在飛機(jī)配置該計(jì)算機(jī)的方式確定這些條件是最好的。雖然減輕了工作量,一些飛行員缺乏信心,擔(dān)心這會(huì)導(dǎo)致它的場(chǎng)合發(fā)生故障時(shí)所需要的技能衰退,并認(rèn)為他們的經(jīng)驗(yàn)是一個(gè)比由工程師編寫(xiě)的程序更好地指導(dǎo)。(1980年紐曼)船用甲板人員忽視出于同樣的原因復(fù)雜的防撞設(shè)備,還因?yàn)樗鼘?shí)際上增加了工作量和分散他們的溝通及其他任務(wù)(噶的尼爾1981)。核電廠的經(jīng)營(yíng)者禁用自動(dòng)系統(tǒng)和安全裝置,以達(dá)到生產(chǎn)目標(biāo)(佩偌,1984)。因此,系統(tǒng)設(shè)計(jì)了相關(guān)的決定與對(duì)經(jīng)營(yíng)者的過(guò)分要求,單調(diào)和退出,系統(tǒng)理解,維修問(wèn)題缺乏問(wèn)題,從規(guī)定的行為未經(jīng)授權(quán)的偏差。這是HFE的任務(wù)是提供意見(jiàn),以設(shè)計(jì)工程師如何設(shè)計(jì)的設(shè)備和系統(tǒng),從而最大限度地減少這些問(wèn)題。人為因素工程師可(1)制訂列出了要求,要求設(shè)計(jì)工程師們將遵守(一軍事卷是少數(shù)在100頁(yè)的長(zhǎng)度,例如,交換機(jī)都應(yīng)該右轉(zhuǎn),插座應(yīng)設(shè)計(jì)所以,錯(cuò)誤的插頭不能插入,并指出多遠(yuǎn)百分之九十的預(yù)期用戶可以達(dá)到輕彈開(kāi)關(guān)),(2)審查的實(shí)際設(shè)計(jì)和提出改革建議;(3)或可能實(shí)際上與工程師,設(shè)計(jì)演變。該HFEs背景一般工程心理學(xué)的工作?;倦m然適合他們的,它可以促進(jìn)一個(gè)獨(dú)特的角度看,限制條件,這是孤立的人,只受生物。在HFE帶來(lái)的有限元等),設(shè)計(jì)工程師關(guān)切體位限制(范圍,強(qiáng)度,視覺(jué)和運(yùn)動(dòng)靈敏度,響應(yīng)時(shí)間,認(rèn)知能力和記憶體限制,以及工作負(fù)載的能力。雖然設(shè)計(jì)者往往不了解這些限制經(jīng)營(yíng)和設(shè)計(jì)設(shè)備無(wú)法合理,組織方面存在認(rèn)識(shí)不足的部分就都HFEs工程師和設(shè)計(jì),其中經(jīng)營(yíng)者的職能。此外,它是明顯的,許多文獻(xiàn)和實(shí)地觀察,HFEs有問(wèn)題影響了很多設(shè)計(jì)師甚至就限制了經(jīng)營(yíng)者的生物;HFEs影響最缺乏軍事和許多工業(yè)組織。一個(gè)方面的認(rèn)識(shí),在他們的組織以及經(jīng)營(yíng)者的工作可能說(shuō)明為什么他們的影響力是如此微不足道。人的因素應(yīng)包括組織的背景下,不僅經(jīng)營(yíng)者利用有限序列的影響HFE的設(shè)計(jì)工程師,這反過(guò)來(lái)又影響了設(shè)備,但如何將這些全部是該組織所影響的社會(huì)結(jié)構(gòu)和影響力將其在。圖1給出了模型,其余的文件將指導(dǎo)本。圖1箭頭表示將要討論的基本方向的影響力。箭頭1顯示了工程師的設(shè)計(jì)影響的社會(huì)結(jié)構(gòu)。這種關(guān)系是最為相關(guān)的被忽視的問(wèn)題:為什么在大多數(shù)軍事和許多工業(yè)組織的人的因素,原則是這樣的工程。結(jié)構(gòu)的相關(guān)方面將要討論的是高層管理人員的目標(biāo)和觀點(diǎn),組織的獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)結(jié)構(gòu),絕緣設(shè)計(jì)工程師從他們的決定造成的后果,以及組織文化的某些方面。高層管理人員及設(shè)計(jì)最終,在設(shè)計(jì)上忽視居所資助計(jì)劃在工程中可能在于他們消費(fèi)這些設(shè)計(jì)中,無(wú)論是誰(shuí),有設(shè)計(jì)了他們的房子或出示指定誰(shuí)為供應(yīng)商。一個(gè)組織的分析師將放在解釋沒(méi)有什么價(jià)值,設(shè)計(jì)工程師忽略或忽視他們的居所資助計(jì)劃,因?yàn)樗麄儾恢赖?,是他們的蔑視,不想再打擾他們,或以某種方式或其他他們無(wú)法欣賞。這些可能是近似的解釋,因?yàn)橐恍┪墨I(xiàn)提示(梅斯特和法爾,1967年;邁斯特,1971年),但分析師認(rèn)為該組織的獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)和懲罰管理人員和專業(yè)人士作為回應(yīng),當(dāng)時(shí)的信仰體系和管理,頂部。最高管理層可以,如果愿意,告知工程設(shè)計(jì)高頻的存在,原則的信息,可以要求這些原則加以利用,并能結(jié)構(gòu)的獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)制度,鼓勵(lì)設(shè)計(jì)師,它考慮到了這些原則。高頻工程的原則可能不是十分便利,有說(shuō)服力的,或容易使用,但我懷疑相對(duì)較少的努力要避免使用不同的尺度上不同的控制面板布局為兩個(gè)相同的表盤(pán)和子系統(tǒng)或相鄰兩個(gè)類(lèi)似的,甚至相同的子系統(tǒng),或放在幾乎是無(wú)法避免的安全裝置中的關(guān)鍵領(lǐng)域。錯(cuò)誤的設(shè)計(jì),很多的例子(塞米納拉,岡薩雷斯和帕森斯,1976),如給這些植物在廣泛的核洛克希德研究設(shè)計(jì)在控制室里(馬龍等人。,1980),在埃塞克斯研究比較三哩島廠與一些其他的100海軍海軍蒸汽系統(tǒng)中使用的約(威廉姆斯等人。,1982),研究了過(guò)熱船只,并在海軍研究咨詢委員會(huì)的居所資助計(jì)劃的報(bào)告(1980)。你也可以談在車(chē)庫(kù)機(jī)械師。而不是責(zé)怪設(shè)計(jì)工程師,該組織的分析師會(huì)問(wèn):誰(shuí)承擔(dān)設(shè)計(jì)不良后果在大多數(shù)高科技的計(jì)算機(jī)系統(tǒng)是不出售大規(guī)模的個(gè)人物品,例如直接產(chǎn)生大量最終客戶除外(,照相機(jī),或電視機(jī)),其后果是由經(jīng)營(yíng)者承擔(dān)。災(zāi)難缺乏良好的宣傳,工程師可能永遠(yuǎn)不會(huì)知道她的設(shè)計(jì)所帶來(lái)的后果,他或和高級(jí)管理人員將只依稀聽(tīng)到它的下一個(gè)項(xiàng)目可能不和,直至目前已經(jīng)開(kāi)始建設(shè),是根據(jù)。他們不聽(tīng),因?yàn)槌杀镜幕A(chǔ)上承擔(dān)那些誰(shuí)必須把每天的系統(tǒng)工作,一,與經(jīng)營(yíng)者的說(shuō)法,這是設(shè)計(jì)不良,是由大家來(lái)判斷別人是自私。即使在設(shè)計(jì)知識(shí)貧困變得普遍,作為核控制室,奧拉斯證明新軍步槍拜斯維修問(wèn)題與高性能軍用飛機(jī)或不可靠一(法洛斯,1981),高層管理者可以判斷他們和他們的成本相對(duì)較低的事業(yè)。獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)工作的規(guī)范組織的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人就在于誰(shuí)決定以外的地方在這些設(shè)備的有效性能。上訴的權(quán)力的速度,機(jī)動(dòng)性和輕松勝出以上考慮易維護(hù)和操作方便的選擇設(shè)計(jì),還有一些內(nèi)部的顧問(wèn)人員誰(shuí)可以提醒到這一點(diǎn)。行政獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)是選擇最新和最先進(jìn)的設(shè)計(jì),即使它們沒(méi)有經(jīng)過(guò)測(cè)試。幾年后,當(dāng)系統(tǒng)交付及運(yùn)營(yíng),行政機(jī)關(guān)已經(jīng)提出,如果他或她幾乎是在一個(gè)軍事組織,它強(qiáng)制輪換的兩,三年,或者如果沒(méi)有,行政機(jī)關(guān)可以歸咎于技術(shù),使設(shè)計(jì)的承諾對(duì)目前復(fù)雜的。高風(fēng)險(xiǎn),高科技系統(tǒng)已經(jīng)和事后的小地方的歷史,獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)必須由目前的活動(dòng)。無(wú)論是高層管理人員或不忽略高頻設(shè)計(jì),其后果相當(dāng)貧困的措施取決于對(duì)較大型系統(tǒng),其中存在的組織。阿考慮對(duì)比的錯(cuò)誤,避免航空運(yùn)輸系統(tǒng)和錯(cuò)誤誘導(dǎo)的海上運(yùn)輸系統(tǒng)將首先說(shuō)明如何管理的類(lèi)別將難以忽視高頻,而那些在第二次會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)很容易,甚至有利可圖的航空運(yùn)輸制度,績(jī)效管理制度的影響,通過(guò)獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)的利潤(rùn)狀況和性能故障立即影響利潤(rùn)和聲譽(yù)。故障接收媒體報(bào)道和徹底的調(diào)查和公開(kāi)的利益不同的當(dāng)事方與(管理機(jī)構(gòu),聯(lián)邦航空管理局,一個(gè)獨(dú)立的安全委員會(huì),國(guó)家運(yùn)輸安全委員會(huì)和飛行員工會(huì)),以及未能確定的原因有法律和保險(xiǎn)的后果。該系統(tǒng)的用戶可以退出,并使用其他系統(tǒng)(航空公司)或其他運(yùn)輸方式在一定程度上。技術(shù)“修復(fù)”(技術(shù),補(bǔ)償,修理,或更換有缺陷的技術(shù))是相對(duì)簡(jiǎn)單的,可用,適合小規(guī)模的維修人員和小系統(tǒng)業(yè)者(兩個(gè)或三個(gè)船員,兩個(gè)或三個(gè)空中交通管制員,一個(gè)小維修)。合理兼容獨(dú)立人士(制造商,航空公司,工會(huì),管理機(jī)構(gòu),以及空中交通控制系統(tǒng))作為相互制衡的航空公司和利益,乘客和控制器(例如,減少擠塞節(jié)省燃料,時(shí)間空氣,降低互動(dòng)的復(fù)雜性)。與此相反,海洋交通運(yùn)輸系統(tǒng)是錯(cuò)誤誘導(dǎo)。(那么,軍等系統(tǒng),他們?nèi)狈ψ钌厦娴臋z查。)海洋運(yùn)輸系統(tǒng)是國(guó)際性的,但當(dāng)事國(guó)利益相互矛盾,因此一些規(guī)定是有效的。經(jīng)濟(jì)損失是很少注意吸收和傳遞到最終消費(fèi)者,和人類(lèi)的損失限于最初的人員和船員。環(huán)境是非常敵對(duì),自然災(zāi)害和相互作用船舶危險(xiǎn)是間斷性的,比較難以預(yù)測(cè),分布在長(zhǎng)的時(shí)間跨度,限制了學(xué)習(xí),經(jīng)驗(yàn)和常規(guī)化,有效的保障。生產(chǎn)高,競(jìng)爭(zhēng)壓力相對(duì)不受管制。事故原因的分析是困難和阻礙國(guó)家利益,弱弱的監(jiān)管機(jī)構(gòu)和工會(huì),占沉沒(méi)的船只和船員,不可靠的,重建缺乏事故監(jiān)測(cè)數(shù)據(jù)。加強(qiáng)技術(shù)修復(fù)了不適當(dāng)?shù)臋?quán)力結(jié)構(gòu)(集中系統(tǒng)的命令在一個(gè)日益互動(dòng),在下面討論)。該系統(tǒng)對(duì)比航空公司和海洋是佩羅闡述(1984)。因此,該組織的性質(zhì)有一個(gè)HFS影響高層管理人員的注意,以支付,這轉(zhuǎn)變的工程師分析,從設(shè)計(jì)到高層管理人員和服務(wù)的角度把這個(gè)問(wèn)題:對(duì)于某些系統(tǒng),良好的人力因素的設(shè)計(jì)是不很相關(guān)的高層管理人員,但它肯定是飛行員和鍋爐操作員在軍事和航海。一個(gè)隱含的觀點(diǎn)是,HFEs這將更有可能獲得支持,如果沒(méi)有他們的努力宣傳他們的積極支持。這種宣傳會(huì),動(dòng)員別人把管理人員的壓力在最前面。這將是很難做到的國(guó)防合同和海洋的設(shè)計(jì),但它不會(huì)是不可能的。例如,根據(jù)加夫尼(1982),歐洲航運(yùn)界(更多的世界其他地區(qū)的社會(huì),比那些在這可能占了更大的效益)的培訓(xùn)走向橋的團(tuán)隊(duì),所設(shè)計(jì)的設(shè)備,正在反映了負(fù)責(zé)控制人員在團(tuán)隊(duì)合作的潛力,而不是集中。或許,這將是不可能作出回避制度的結(jié)構(gòu)性變革,從而使海洋運(yùn)輸一明顯的錯(cuò)誤,只是因?yàn)樗赡軣o(wú)法使航空運(yùn)輸系統(tǒng)的錯(cuò)誤誘導(dǎo)系統(tǒng)。然而,更可以做與海洋運(yùn)輸,都是考慮到組織因素。即使高層管理者都確信,至少?gòu)拈L(zhǎng)遠(yuǎn)來(lái)看,人為因素是重要的,他們能說(shuō)服(1)供應(yīng)商誰(shuí)設(shè)計(jì)和建造的系統(tǒng),或(2)自己設(shè)計(jì)的工程師誰(shuí)寫(xiě)的規(guī)格(或在某些個(gè)案設(shè)計(jì)和建造系統(tǒng))的設(shè)計(jì)的重要性良好的高頻組織理論家關(guān)注這個(gè)社會(huì)的組織結(jié)構(gòu)會(huì)回答:“當(dāng)然。”他們不會(huì),但是,所有的經(jīng)理都認(rèn)為,這樣做是為了輸出居所資助計(jì)劃予以考慮,任何超過(guò)他們可以命令努力工作,忠誠(chéng),或質(zhì)量。事實(shí)上,書(shū)面命令只造福,是提供法律支持紀(jì)律應(yīng)該是方便,甚至是必要的。理論家會(huì),而是強(qiáng)調(diào)不唐突的控制。例如,高層管理人員可以控制的設(shè)計(jì)人員使用的處所,而不是試圖控制他們的行為直接(佩羅,1977年)如下:確保HFEs在身體附近的設(shè)計(jì)師,使他們能夠建立互動(dòng)和非正式的個(gè)人和團(tuán)體的債券。設(shè)計(jì)工程師希望分配到HF組巡回論壇的責(zé)任。要清楚,這次活動(dòng)是必要的培訓(xùn),從而提高了HFE的地位。3.邀請(qǐng)一個(gè)關(guān)鍵HFE的規(guī)格會(huì)議上,并確保供應(yīng)商或設(shè)計(jì)師知道他或她在那里,即使HFE的保持沉默。4.撰寫(xiě)和散發(fā)HFEs報(bào)告的貢獻(xiàn)。5.學(xué)習(xí)的名稱和使用的關(guān)鍵HFEs詢問(wèn)他們?cè)诜钦秸勗捴泻停ǜ邔庸芾砣藛T的一切不發(fā)送信號(hào))。6.同1。TheOrganizationalContextofHumanFactorsEngineeringAuthor(s):CharlesPerrowHumanfactorsengineeringconcernsthedesignofequip-mentinaccordancewiththementalandphysicalcharac-teristicsofoperators.Humanfactorsengineersadvisede-signengineers,buttheorganizationalcontextlimitstheirinfluenceandrestrictstheirperspective.Thediscussionoforganizationalcontextinthispaperexplainswhymilitaryandindustrialtopmanagementpersonnelareindifferenttogoodhumanfactorsdesignandshowshowthesocialstructurefavorsthechoiceoftechnologiesthatcentralizeauthorityanddeskilloperatorsandhowitencouragesunwarrantedattributionsofoperatorerror.Theroleofequipmentandsystemdesigninshapingcognitivemapsandmentalmodelsisexplored,andthetechnology-socialstructureparadigmisquestioned.INTRODUCTIONSomerecentdisastersandneardisastersinhigh-technologysystemshavegeneratedincreasedconcernabouttheinteractionofoperatorsandequipmentincomplexmilitaryandindustrialsystems.Fifteen-footbanksofidenticalswitcheswithsmallcodenumbersunderneaththeminnuclearpowerplants,sophisticatedarmyweaponsthatpersonnelcannotaimorevenfireattimes,sophisticatedmilitaryaircraftthataresoexpensivetooperatethatpilotscanrarelyflythemorfiretheirweapons,shipsthatcollidewhiletheofficersareobservingoneanotheronanticollisionradardevicesallsuggestanoperator-machineproblemintheworldoftechnologicalmarvels.Thisessayaddressesanunexploredaspectoftheoperator-machineproblembyanalyzingtheorganizationalcontextthatstructurestherelationshipbetweenthetwo;thatis,howorganizationalstructureaffectsthedesignofequipment,andhownewequipmentreproducestheorganizationalstructure.Responsibilityforseeingthatequipmentdesignerstakethecharacteristicsofoperatorsandmaintenancepeopleintoac-countintheirdesignsisformalizedinthepositionofthehumanfactorsengineer(HFE),amemberofasmalldisciplinethatemergedafterWorldWar11andthatnownumbersperhaps5,000engineersandengineeringpsychologists.Thedisciplineisalsoreferredtoashumanengineering,andinEurope,asergonomics.HFEsattempttobroadenthepurviewofthedesignengineerbyadvisinghimorheronthephysicalandbiologicalcharacteristicsofoperatorsandmaintenancepersonnel.Iwill,inturn,attempttobroadenthepurviewofHFEsbyadvisingthemonthesocialandorganizationalcontextinwhichequipmentoperatorsfunction.Giventhemanyhorrorstoriesofequipmentthatispoorlydesignedtofithumancapabilities,Iamsurethatthefirstpriorityistoattendtophysicalandbiologicalcharacteristicsofoperators,yetthemoreextendedconcernofferedhereisalsoimportant,anditsuggestsinsightsastowhyHFrecommendationsareneglectedandthenumberofHFEsissosmall,andsuggestsstepstoremedythissituation.Itwillalsobearguedthatorganizationaltheorycanbenefitfromanexaminationoftherelationshipbetweenequipmentdesignandorganizationalstructure,amuchneglectedtopicexceptinsomehistoricalstudies.Ratherthantechnologydeterminingorganizationalstructure,itwouldappearthatmachinesandequipmentaredesignedsothattheyreinforceexistingstructuresandreproducethesestructuresinnewsettings.Organizationstructuresaswellashuman-machineinterfacesmaycontributetoaccidents,amatterofconcernwherecatastrophicpotentialexists,asinsomanyofthemilitaryandindustrialsystemsconsideredhere.Someofthepointsofthisessayarediscussedinmoredetailelsewhere(Perrow,1984).THEDESIGNPROBLEMWithrevolutionsinmaterials,physics,andelectronicsithasbecomepossibletodemandhigherperformancelevelsfrommilitaryandindustrialsystems,suchasmorespeed,power,maneuverability,theabilitytooperateinever-more-hostileenvironments(outerspace,stormsatsea,fog-boundairports)circlosertopopulationconcentrations,instantaneouscommunicationsovergreatdistances,andcreaturecomfortstocrewsorpassengers,andfinally,tomeettheendlessdemandformorecapacityoroutput.Highersystemperformancehasbeenachievedbyalteringtheoperator'sroleinthreeways:demandinghigherskillsandlevelsofperformance,reducingoperatingtaskstopassivemonitoring,orautomatingfunctions(inengineeringvernacularthisis"removingthemanfromtheloop").Highpressure,highworkload,andmoretasksrequiringhighcognitivecomplexitycharacterizetheroleofmerchantmarinedeckofficers,astronauts,andairtransportpilotsincriticalphasesoftheirtourofduty,nuclearandchemicalplantoperatorsduringemergencies,andfighterpilotsandtankcommandersgenerally.Passivemonitoringcharacterizesflightandmarinecrewsandnuclearandchemicalplantoperatorsduringlong,routinephasesoftheirtour,enemydetectionsystemssuchasdistinguishingthetrackofenemysubmarinesfromthestaticoncathoderaytubes,andairbornsurveillancesystems.Allthesesystemshaveexamplesofthethirdalterationintheoperator'srole,automateddevicesthatbypasstheoperatorentirely.Thesechangesinsystemshaveledtoproblemsinthedesignoftheinterfacebetweenoperatorsandtheirequipment,andalsoproblemsintheinterfacebetweenmaintenancepersonnelandtheequipment.Thehigh-demandmodethreatenstoexceedthephysicalandbiologicalcapacitiesofoperators;thepassive-monitoringmodeencouragesdeskilling,tedium,andlowsystemcomprehension,leadingtolowmorale,lowoutput,andlackofskillstocopewithemergenciesorevenunexpectedvariationsinsystemstate.Designingoperatorsoutofthecontrolsystemthroughautomationreducestheirsystemcomprehensionandabilitytointerveneinemergenciesorwhenconditionsareabnormal.Thecomplexityoftheequipmentandthefactthatitisoftenpackedintosmall,inaccessiblespacesmakesmaintenancedifficult.Thehighexpenseofbuildingandoperatingsophisticatedsystemsreducesavailabletrainingtimeandincreasestheexpenseoffailures.Itissometimesdifficulttogetoperatorstousenewdevicesdesignedtoincreasesystemperformancebecausetheydonottrustthem,findthemtoodifficulttooperate,orfeelthattheymakeitmoredifficulttoreachperformancetargets.Navalpilotshaveaheads-updisplay(HUD)thatgeneratesacomputerimageoftheaircraftdecktheyaretolandon;theyaretomatchtheimage,projectedonclearplasticintheirwindscreen,withtheirviewoftheactualdeck,thusconfiguringtheaircraftinthemannerthatthecomputerdeterminesisbestfortheseconditions.Whileiteasestheworkload,somepilotslackconfidenceinit,fearitwillleadtoadecayofskillsneededfortheoccasionswhenitmalfunctions,andbelievethattheirexperienceisabetterguidethantheprogramwrittenbyengineers(Newman,1980).Marinedeckofficersignoresophisticatedcollision-avoidanceequipmentforsimilarreasons,andalsobecauseitactuallyincreasesworkloadanddistractsthemfromcommunicationandothertasks(Gardenier,1981).Nuclearplantoperatorsdisableautomaticsystemsandsafetydevicesinordertomeetproductiongoals(Perrow,1984).Thus,systemdesigndecisionshavebeenassociatedwithproblemsofexcessivedemandsonoperators,tediumandwithdrawal,lackofsystemcomprehension,maintenanceproblems,andunauthorizeddeviationsfrommandatedpractices.ItisthetaskoftheHFEtoadvisethedesignengineersastohowtodesignequipmentandsystemsthatwillminimizetheseproblems.Humanfactorsengineersmay(1)drawuplistsofrequirementsthatdesignengineersareexpectedtoabideby(onemilitaryvolumeisafewhundredpagesinlengthandrequires,forexample,thatswitchesshouldallturntotherightandsocketsshouldbedesignedsothatthewrongplugcannotbeinserted,andindicateshowfar90percentoftheexpecteduserscanreachtoflickaswitch);(2)reviewactualdesignsandrecommendchanges;(3)ormayactuallyworkwithengineersasdesignsareevolving.ThebackgroundofHFEsisgenerallyengineeringpsychology.Whileappropriatefortheirbasicwork,itpromotesadistinctiveperspective,thatoftheisolatedhuman,subjectonlytobiologicallimitations.TheHFEbringstothedesignengineerconcernsaboutanthropometriclimits(reach,strength,etc.),visualandmotorsensitivity,responsetime,cognitivecapacityandmemorylimits,andwork-loadcapacity.Whiledesignersareoftenunawareoftheselimitsanddesignequipmentthatcannotbereasonablyoperated,thereisinsufficientawarenessonthepartofbothHFEsanddesignengineersoftheorganizationalcontextinwhichtheoperatorfunctions.Furthermore,itisapparentfromtheliteratureandmanyfieldobservationsthatHFEshaveagreatdealoftroubleinfluencingdesigners,evenwithrespecttothebiologicallimitsofoperators;HFEslackinfluenceinmostmilitaryandmanyindustrialorganizations.Anawarenessoftheorganizationalcontextinwhichtheyaswellasoperatorsworkmightindicatewhytheirinfluenceissoslight.TheorganizationalcontextofhumanfactorsshouldincludenotonlythelimitedsequenceoftheHFEinfluencingthedesignengineer,whichinturninfluencestheequipmenttheoperatoruses,buthowalloftheseareinfluencedbythesocialstructureoftheorganizationandinfluenceitinturn.Figure1presentsthemodelthatwillguidetherestofthispaper.ThearrowsofFigure1indicatethebasicdirectionsofinfluencethatwillbediscussed.Arrow1indicatestheinfluenceofthesocialstructureonthedesignengineer.Thisrelationshipismostpertinenttothequestionofwhy,inmostmilitaryandmanyindustrialorganizations,theprinciplesofhumanfactorsengineeringaresoneglected.Therelevantaspectsofthestructuretobediscussedaretopmanagementgoalsandperspectives,therewardstructureoftheorganization,insulationofdesignengineersfromtheconsequencesoftheirdecision,andsomeaspectsoforganizationalculture.TOPMANAGEMENTANDDESIGNUltimately,theneglectofHFsinengineeringdesignsprobablyrestswiththeconsumerofthesedesigns,whoeitherhasthedesignsmadein-houseorspecifiesthemforvendorswhoproducethem.AnorganizationalanalystwouldplacelittlevalueonexplanationsthatdesignengineersignoreorneglectHFEsbecausetheyareunawareofthem,arecontemptuousofthem,donotwanttobebotheredwiththem,oraresomehoworotherincapableofappreciatingthem.Thesemightbeproximateexplanations,assomeoftheliteraturehints(MeisterandFarr,1967;Meister,1971),buttheorganizationalanalystseesman-agersandprofessionalsasrespondingtotherewardsandsanctions,andtheprevailingbeliefsystems,oftopmanagement.Topmanagementcan,ifitwishes,informdesignersoftheexistenceofinformationabouttheprinciplesofHFengineering,canrequirethattheseprinciplesbeutilized,andcanstructuretherewardsystemsothatitencouragesdesignerstotaketheseprinciplesintoaccount.TheprinciplesofHFengineeringmaynotbeveryaccessible,convincing,oreasytouse,butIsuspectthatcomparativelylittleeffortisrequiredtoavoidusingdifferentcontrolpanellayoutsfortwoidenticalandadjacentsubsystemsordialswithdifferentscalesontwosimilarorevenidenticalsubsystems,ortoavoidplacingkeysafetydevicesinareasthatarevirtuallyinaccessible.ManyexamplesoffaultydesignssuchasthesearegivenintheextensiveLockheedstudyofcontrolroomdesigninnuclearplants(Seminara,Gonzales,andParsons,1976),theEssexstudycomparingtheThreeMileIslandplantwithsomeothers(Maloneetal.,1980),thenavystudyofthesuperheated-steamsystemusedinabout100navalvessels(Williamsetal.,1982),andintheNavalResearchAdvisoryCommittee(1980)reportonHFEs.Onecanalsotalktoagaragemechanic.Ratherthanblamethedesignengineer,theorganizationalanalystwouldask:whobearstheconsequenceofpoordesignInmosthigh-technologysystemsthatarenotsolddirectlytoalargenumberoffinalcustomers(exceptformass-produceditemssuchaspersonalcomputers,cameras,ortelevisionsets),theconsequencesarebornebytheoperators.Shortofawell-publicizedcatastrophe,theengineerwillprobablyneverknowtheconsequencesofhisorherdesign,andtopmanagementwillonlyhearofitfaintlyandperhapsnotuntilthenextprojectisalreadyunderconstruction.Theydonothearbecausethecostsarebornebythosewhomustmakethesystemworkonadailybasis,andtheoperators'argumentthatitispoorlydesignedisjudgedbyeveryoneelsetobeself-serving.Evenwhenknowledgeofpoordesignbecomeswidespread,aswithnuclearcontrolrooms,orasevidencedbythemaintenanceproblemswithhigh-performancemilitaryaircraftortheunreliabilityofanewarmyrifle(Fallows,1981),topmanagersmayjudgethecoststothemandtheircareerstoberelativelylow.Therewardsoperatingfortheorganizationalleaderswhodecideonthespecificationslieelsewherethanintheeffectiveperformanceofsuchequipment.Theappealsofspeed,power,andmaneuverabilityeasilywinoutoverconsiderationsofeasymaintenanceandeaseofoperationinchoosingdesigns,andtherearefewin-houseadviserswhocanalerttheexecutivestothis.Theexecutiveisrewardedforchoosingthelatestandmostsophisticateddesigns,eventhoughtheyareuntested.Someyearslater,whenthesystemsaredeliveredandoperated,theexecutivewillhavemovedonifheorsheisinamilitaryorganization,whichhasnearlymandatoryrotationsoftwoorthreeyears,orifnot,theexecutivecanblamethetechnologyandmakepromisesaboutthecurrentsophisticateddesign.High-risk,high-technologysystemshavelittleplaceforhistoryandhindsight;rewardsmustcomefrompresentactivity.WhethertopmanagementdoesordoesnotignoretheconsequencesofpoorHFdesignsdependsinconsiderablemeasureonthelargersysteminwhichtheorganizationexists.Acontrastbetweentheerror-avoidingairtransportsystemandtheerror-inducingmarinetransportsystemwillillustratehowmanagementinthefirstcategorywillfindithardtoignoreHFconsiderations,whilethoseinthesecondwillfinditeasyandevenprofitableIntheairtransportsystem,performanceaffectsmanagementrewardsthroughtheprofitstatusofthesystem,andperformancefailuresaffectprofitsandreputationimmediately.Failuresreceivemediacoverageandarethoroughlyandopenlyinvestigatedbypartieswithdifferinginterests(aregulatoryagency-FederalAviationAdministration,anindependentsafetyboard-theNationalTransportationSafetyBoard,andthepilots'union),andthedeterminationofthecauseoffailurehaslegalandinsuranceconsequences.Usersofthesystemcanexitfromitanduseothersystems(airlines)orothertransportationmodestosomedegree.Technological"fixes"(technologythatcompensatesfor,repairs,orreplacesfaultytechnology)arerelativelysimple,available,andfitthesmallsizeofsystemoperators(acrewoftwoorthree,twoorthreeairtrafficcontrollers,asmallmaintenancecrew).Independentparties(manufacturers,airlines,unions,regulatoryagencies,andtheairtrafficcontrolsystem)serveaschecksoneachother,andtheinterestsofairlines,passengers,andcontrollersarereasonablycompatible.,lesscongestionsavesfuel,timeintheair,andreducesinteractivecomplexity).Incontrast,themarinetransportsystemiserrorinducing.(Soaremilitarysystems;theylackmostoftheabovechecks.)Themarinetransportsystemisinternational,butthenationsinvolvedhaveconflictinginterests;thusfewregulationsare5251ASQ,December1983effective.Economiclossesareabsorbedwithlittlenoticeandpassedontothefinalconsumer,andhumanlossesareinitiallyrestrictedtotheofficersandcrew.Theenvironmentisextremelyhostile,andnaturalhazardsandthehazardousinteractionsofshipsareintermittent,relativelyunpredictable,andspreadoverlongtimespans,limitinglearning,experience,androutinized,efficientsafeguards.Productionpressuresarehighandcompetitioniscomparativelyunregulated.Analysisofcausesofaccidentsisdifficultandimpededbynationalinterests,weakregulatoryagenciesandweakunions,thesinkingofthevesselandthecrew,unreliableaccounts,andlackofmonitoringdataforaccidentreconstruction.Technologicalfixesreinforceaninappropriateauthoritystructure(centralizingcommandinanincreasinglyinteractivesystem,discussedbelow).ThecontrastbetweenairlineandmarinesystemsiselaboratedinPerrow(1984).Thus,thenatureoftheorganizationhasanimpactontheattentionthattopmanagementpaystoHFEs;thisshiftstheanalysisfromdesignengineerstotopmanagementandservestoplacetheprobleminperspective:Forsomesystems,goodhumanfactorsdesignissimplynotveryrelevanttotopmanagement,thoughitcertainlyistopilotsandboileroperatorsinthemilitaryandtomariners.OneimplicationofthisperspectiveisthatHFEswouldbemorelikelytogetsupportiftheypublicizedthelackofsupportfortheireffortsaggressively.Suchpublicitywouldhavetomobilizeotherstoputpressureontopmanagements.Thatwouldbehardtodoindefensecontractingandmarinedesigns,butitwouldnotbeimpossible.Forexample,accordingtoGaffney(1982),theEuropeanship-pingcommunity(moreofacommunitythanthoseintheotherpartsoftheworld,whichmayaccountforitsgreatereffectiveness)hasmovedtowardbridge-teamtraining,andtheequipmentthatisbeingdesignedreflectsteamworkpotentialsratherthancentralizedcontrolbytheofficerincharge.Itwouldprobablybeimpossibletomakethestructuralchangesneededtomakemarinetransportamarkedlyerror-avoidingsystem,justasitwouldprobablybeimpossibletomaketheairtransportsystemanerror-inducingsystem.Nevertheless,morecouldbedonewithmarinetransport,wereorganizationalfactorstakenintoaccount.

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