




已閱讀5頁,還剩74頁未讀, 繼續(xù)免費(fèi)閱讀
版權(quán)說明:本文檔由用戶提供并上傳,收益歸屬內(nèi)容提供方,若內(nèi)容存在侵權(quán),請進(jìn)行舉報(bào)或認(rèn)領(lǐng)
文檔簡介
ChapterFour FromWordtoText wordphraseclausesentencetext Theoriginoftheword syntax syntaxsyntaxtogethertoarrangearrangementThedefinitionofSYNTAX therulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentences theformationofsentences 句子的組成或句子的構(gòu)造 Howtoarrangewordsintophrase clauseorsentence theconditionofarrangment syntacticrelations theunitsofthearrangment grammaticalConstructionandConstituents Phrase ClauseandSentence SyntacticFunction Howtoformtext Recursiveness sentenceconnection cohension SyntacticRelations 句法關(guān)系 GrammaticalConstructionandItsConstituents 語法結(jié)構(gòu)與成分 SyntacticFunction 句法功能 Category 范疇 Phrase ClauseandSentenceRecursiveness 遞歸性 BeyondtheSentence SyntacticRelations Syntacticrelationscanbeanalyzedintothreekinds namely positionalrelation 位置關(guān)系 relationofsubstitutability 可替代關(guān)系 and relationofco occurrence 同現(xiàn)關(guān)系 PositionalRelation POSITIONALRELATION orWORDORDER referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage Ifthewordsinasentencefailtooccurinafixedorderrequiredbytheconventionofalanguageungrammatical nonsensicalsequencesor grammaticallywell formedbutoppositemeanings sentences Other related namesSYNTAGMATICRELATIONS組合關(guān)系HORIZONALRELATIONSCHAINRELATIONS Wordorderisamongthethreebasicways wordorder genetic 類 屬 andarea l classifications toclassifylanguagesintheworld InthewayofclassificationofWordOrder therearetotallysixpossibletypesoflanguage theyare SVO VSO SOV OVS OSV andVOS RelationofSubstitutability Firstly theRELATIONOFSUBSTITUTABILITYreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure Secondly itreferstogroupsofmorethanonewordwhichmaybejointlysubstitutablegrammaticallyforasinglewordofaparticularset eg The smiles OthernamesPARADIGMATICrelation聚合關(guān)系VERTICALrelationsCHOICErelationsASSOCIATIVErelation ADD syntagmatic paradigmaticSyntagmaticrelation1 betweenoneitemandothersinasequence2 betweenelementswhichareallpresentIftheweatherisnice we llgoout Therearesyntacticandsemanticconditionsthewordsinasyntagmaticrelationmustmeet Iftheweatherisnice we llgoout Ifweisnice theweatherwillgoout Iftheweatheriscry we llgoout Theparadigmatic associative relation1 betweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceinastructure2 betweenoneelementpresentandtheothersabsent The issmiling She Tomthebook Wordsinaparadigmaticrelation 1 becomparableonlyintermsofsyntax2 havethesamesyntacticfeatures3 notreplaceablewitheachothersemantically4 semanticfactorsarenottakeintoconsideration RelationofCo occurrence CO OCCURRENCEwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit orrequire theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetoforclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence e g Anominalphrasecanbeprecededbyadeterminerandadjective s andfollowedbyaverbalphrase Thusrelationofco occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelations partlytoparadigmaticrelations GrammaticalConstructionandItsConstituents grammaticalconstruction immediateconstituents 直接成分 endocentricandexocentricconstruction 向心結(jié)構(gòu)和離心結(jié)構(gòu) coordinationandsubordination 并列與從屬 GrammaticalConstruction GRAMMATICALCONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCT anysyntacticconstructwhichisassignedoneormoreconventionalfunctionsinalanguage togetherwithwhateverislinguisticallyconventionalizedaboutitscontributiontothemeaningorusetheconstructcontains Onthelevelofsyntax wedistinguishforanyconstructioninalanguageitsexternalandinternalproperties Theexternalsyntaxofaconstructionreferstothepropertiesoftheconstructionasawhole thatistosay anythingspeakersknowabouttheconstructionthatisrelevanttothelargersyntacticcontextsinwhichitiswelcome Forinstance thedifferenttermssuchasclausaltype phrasaltypeareassignedtothepropertiesoftheconstructionsrespectively Theinternalsyntaxofaconstructionisreallyadescriptionoftheconstruction s make up withthetermssuchassubject predicate noun etc ImmediateConstituent Constituentisatermusedinstructuralsentenceanalysisforeverylinguisticunit whichisapartofalargerlinguisticunit Severalconstituentstogetherformaconstruction Constituentscanbejoinedtogetherwithotherconstituentstoformlargerunits Immediateconstituents1 constituentsimmediatelybelowthelevelofaconstruction2 maybeasentence orawordgroupPoorJohnranaway PoorJohnranaway poorJohnranaway Immediateconstituentanalysis theanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituents wordgroups orphrases whichareinturnanalyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimateconstituentsarereached ICanalysismaybecarriedoutwithbrackets Poor John ran away Itmayalsobemoreeasilyshownwithtreediagrams PoorJohnranaway TodismantleagrammaticalconstructioninthewayofNODES 節(jié)點(diǎn) iscalledIMMEDIATECONSTITUENTANALYSISorICanalysis A mothernode B daughternode C daughternode B Caredaughtersofthesamemother sotheyarereferredasSisternodes Whenatreediagramisusedtorepresenttheconstituentstructureofagrammaticalunit syntacticcategoriesareusedtolabelthenodes eg N nounA adjective VPDetAdvNPAPVPPPConjS Themanhitaball SNPVPDetNVNPthemanhitDetNaball Themanhitaball TheadvantageofICanalysis ThroughICanalysis theinternalstructureofasentencemaybedemonstratedclearly andambiguities ifany willberevealed Leavethebookontheshelf LeavethebookontheshelfLeavethebookontheshelf EndocentricandExocentricConstruction Thesyntacticconstructionsanalyzedareoftwotypes endocentricandexocentricconstructions dependingontheirdistributionandtherelationbetweentheirconstituents Endocentric 向心結(jié)構(gòu) ENDOCENTRICconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents i e awordoragroupofwords whichservesasadefinableCENTERorHEAD Usuallynounphrases verbphrasesandadjectivephrasesbelongtoendocentrictypesbecausetheconstituentitemsaresubordinatetotheHead AnEndocentricconstruction Ashortexpressionbecomeslongerbytheadditionofamodifier andthetwoexpressionsaresyntacticallythesame Theyaresubstitutableforeachother Theshortexpressionisthecentreorheadofthelongerexpression anendocentricconstructionaconstructionwhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttooneofitsconstituents whichservesasthecentreorheadofthewhole Anendocentricconstruction aheadedconstruction Typicalendocentricconstructions nounphrases thethreesmallchildren verbphrases willhavebeenleaving adjectivephrases reallyverylate Thehead 1 thelastconstituent or2 atthebeginningthebookontheshelf themanaboutwhomI vebeentalking walkedawayimmediately hotbeyondendurance afraidofthetalk TwosubtypesofEndocentricconstructions COORDINATEconstructions 并列結(jié)構(gòu) SUBORDINATEconstructions 主從結(jié)構(gòu) Coordinateconstruction 1 therearemorethanonehead2 allarecapableofservingastheheadSubordinateconstructions thereisonlyonehead withtheheadbeingdominantandtheotherconstituentsdependent Exocentric 離心結(jié)構(gòu) EXOCENTRICconstructionisjusttheoppositeofendocentricconstruction Itreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole thatis thereisnodefinable Center or Head insidethegroup Exocentricconstructionusuallyincludesbasicsentence prepositionalphrase predicate verb object construction andconnective be complement construction Theexocentricconstruction1 aconstructionwhosedistributionisnotfunctionallyequivalenttoanyofitsconstituents 2 Thereisnonoticeablecentre orhead init eg ontheshelf Shelikesdancing Thewholeconstructionhasadifferentgrammaticalfunctionfromeitherofitsconstituents Theycannotsubstituteforeachother CoordinationandSubordination Endocentricconstructionsfallintotwomaintypes dependingontherelationbetweenconstituents coordinationandsubordination Coordination COORDINATIONacommonsyntacticpatterninEnglishandotherlanguagesformedbygroupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand butandor Thisphenomenonisknownascoordination Thesetwoormorewordsorphrasesorclauseshaveequivalentsyntacticstatus eachoftheseparateconstituentscanstandfortheoriginalconstructionfunctionally Thestructure CoordinateofSs isusuallyconsideredtobedoublyheaded sincebothoftheconjoinedelementsfunctionasheadsofthelargerunit Thatis inacoordinatesentence two ormore Sconstituentsoccurasdaughtersandco headsofahigherS Onepropertycoordinationrevealsisthatthereisnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesthatcanappearpriortotheconjunction Thus wecanformstructuresinwhichthesubjectNPcontainsmanysmallerNPspriortotheunderlinedconjunctionandoneafterit Therefore coordinationoccupiesitsownplaceinthecreativityoflanguage recursiveness Subordination SUBORDINATIONreferstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus onebeingdependentupontheother andusuallyaconstituentoftheother ThusthesubordinateconstituentsarewordswhichmodifytheHead Consequently theycanbecalledmodifiers Certainly clausescanbeusedassubordinateconstituents thethreebasictypesofsubordinateclausesare complementclauses adjunct oradverbial clauses andrelativeclauses Sinceallclausescontainanounphrasesubjectandfiniteverbphrasepredicate theirnounphraseandverbphrasescanbeexpanded rearrangedandconjoined inthissense subordination aswellascoordination cantakepartintherecursivenessoflanguageinseveralways SyntacticFunction TheSYNTACTICFUNCTIONshowstherelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused Namesoffunctionsareexpressedintermsofsubjects objects predicators modifiers complements etc Subject ProblemofdefiningSUBJECT 1 Insomelanguages SUBJECTreferstooneofthenounsinthenominativecase ThetypicalexamplecanbefoundinLatin wheresubjectisalwaysinnominativecase 2 InEnglish thesubjectofasentenceisoftensaidtobethedoeroftheaction whiletheobjectisthepersonorthingacteduponbythedoer 3 Butthatisnottrueforthesubjectinpassivevoice Todealwiththismatter twoterms grammaticalsubject and logicalsubject areused Sincethecoreobjectnounsitsintheslotbeforetheverbinthepassive itiscalledtheGRAMMATICALSUBJECT fortheoriginalobjectnounphraseoccupiesthegrammaticalspacebeforeaverb thespacethatasubjectnormallyoccupies thecoresubject nowtheobjectofapreposition iscalledtheLOGICALSUBJECT sincesemanticallythecoresubjectstilldoeswhatasubjectnormallydoes itperformsanaction 4 Anothertraditionaldefinitionofthesubjectis whatthesentenceisabout Again thisdefinitionseemstoworkformanysentences butfailsinothers ItseemsthatwecanNOTreliablyidentifythesubjectofasentencewitheithertheagent 施事 orthetopic Subjectshouldbediscussedspecifically Thecharacteristics properties ofsubjectsinEnglish 1 Wordorder subjectordinarilyprecedestheverbinstatement 2 Pro form thefirstandthethirdpersonpronounsinEnglishappearinaspecialformwhenthepronounisasubject Thisformisnotusedwhenthepronounoccursinotherpositions 3 Agreementwithverb inthesimplepresenttense an sisaddedtotheverbwhenthethirdpersonsubjectissingular 4 Contentquestions ifthesubjectisreplacedbyaquestionword therestofthesentenceremainsunchanged Butwhenanyotherelementofthesentenceisreplacedbyaquestionword anauxiliaryverbmustappearbeforethesubject Ifthebasicsentencedoesnotcontainanyauxiliaryverb wemustinsertdidordoimmediatelyafterthequestion 5 Tagquestion atagquestionisusedtoseekconfirmationofastatement Italwayscontainsapronounwhichrefersbacktothesubject andnevertoanyotherelementsinthesentence Predicate PREDICATEreferstoamajorconstituentofsentencestructureinabinaryanalysisinwhichallobligatoryconstituents 強(qiáng)制性成分 otherthanthesubjectwereconsideredtogether Itusuallyexpressesactions processes andstatesthatrelatetothesubject Aspredicateincludesconstituentssuchasverb object complement etc peoplefinditillogicaltouseaclass term namely theverb ingrammaticalanalysisofafunctionalnature ThewordPREDICATOR 謂語詞 謂詞 issuggestedforverborverbsincludedinapredicate Object OBJECTisalsoatermhardtodefine 1 Sincetraditionallysubjectcanbedefinedasthedoerofanaction objectmayrefertothe receiver or goal ofanaction anditisfurtherclassifiedintoDIRECTOBJECTandINDIRECTOBJECT 2 Insomeinflectinglanguages objectismarkedbycaselabels theaccusativecase 賓格 forindirectobject andthedativecase 與格 forindirectobject 3 InEnglish object isrecognizedbytracingitsrelationtowordorder aftertheverbandpreposition andbyinflections ofpronouns 4 Modernlinguists eg Chomsky halliday suggestthatobjectreferstosuchanitemthatitcanbecomesubjectinapassivetransformation Butthatisnotalwaystrue Forexample HechangedtrainsatFengtai TheRelationbetweenClassesandFunctions Classesandfunctionsdetermineeachother butnotinanyone to onerelation Aclassitemcanperformseveralfunctions Forexample anounoranominalphrasecanfunctionasthesubject object modifier adverbialandcomplementofasentence Similarly afunctioncanbefulfilledbyseveralclasses Forinstance thesubjectofasentencecanberealizedbyanoun numeral infinitive etc Category ThetermCATEGORYinsomeapproachesreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense eg noun verb subject predicate verbphrases etc Morespecifically itreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits thecategoriesofthenoun forexample includenumber gender case andcountability andoftheverb forexample tense aspect voice etc Thegrammaticalcategoriesinthesecondsensewillbediscussedinthissection NumberNUMBERisagrammaticalcategoryusedfortheanalysisofwordclassesdisplayingsuchcontrastsassingular dual plural etc InEnglish numberismainlyobservedinnouns andthereareonlytwoforms singularandplural Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs Inotherlanguages forexample French themanifestationofnumbercanalsobefoundinadjectivesandarticles GenderGENDERdisplayssuchcontrastsas masculine feminine neuter animate inanimate etc fortheanalysisofwordclasses Whenworditemsreferstothesexofreal wordentities wearetalkingaboutnaturalgender Theoppositeisgrammaticalgender Thoughthereisastatisticalcorrelationbetweennaturalgenderandgrammaticalgender theassignmentmayseemquitearbitraryinmanycases forinstanceinLatin fire ismasculine while flame isfeminine Englishgendercontrastcanonlybeobservedinpronounsandasmallnumberofnouns andtheyaremainlyofthenaturalgendertype InFrench genderismanifestedalsobothinadjectivesandarticles andsometimes gendercanchangelexicalmeaning CaseThecasecategoryisusedintheanalysisofwordclassestoidentifythesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence InLatingrammar casesarebasedonvariationsinthemorphologicalformsoftheword andaregiventheterms accusative 賓格 nominative 主格 dative 與格 etc InEnglish CASEisaspecialformofthenounwhichfrequentlycorrespondstoacombinationofprepositionandnoun anditisrealizedinthreechannels inflection followingapreposition wordorder AgreementAGREEMENT orCONCORD maybedefinedastherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsofspecificwordclassesthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationshipwithoneanother shallalsobecharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarkedcategory orcategories Thissyntacticrelationshipmaybeanaphoric 前指 aswhenapronounagreeswithitsantecedent oritmayinvolvearelationbetweenaheadanditsdependent aswhenaverbagreeswithitssubject Thefeaturesoftheheadnounwhichmaybereflectedintheagreeingdependentformsare gender number andcase Agreementbetweengenderandnumbershouldbeshowninnoun adjectiverelationinFrench Phrase ClauseandSentence PhrasePHRASEisasingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword andlackingthesubject predicatestructuretypicalofclauses PhraseTraditionally itisseenaspartofastructuralhierarchy positionedbetweenclauseandword Therefore first aphrasemustbeagroupofwordswhichformaconstituent Second aphraseisloweronthegrammaticalhierarchythanclauses Moreprecisely simpleclausesmay andusuallydo containphrases butsimplephrasedonot ingeneral containclauses PhraseHowever thereisatendencytomakeadistinctionbetweenWORDGROUPandPHRASE Awordgroupisanextensionofwordofaparticularclassbywayofmodificationwithitsmainfeaturesoftheclassunchanged Thuswehavenominalgroup verbalgroup adverbialgroup conjunctiongroupandprepositiongroup rightbehindaprepositionalgroupbehindthedooraprepositionalphrase ClauseAconstituentwithitsownsubjectandpredicate ifitisincludedinalargersentence isaCALUSE ClausecanalsobeclassifiedintoFINITEandNON FINITEclauses thelatterincludingthetraditionalinfinitivephrase participialphrase andgerundialphrase SentenceTraditionally SENTENCEistheminimumpartoflanguagethatexpressesacompletethought Bloomfield 1935 definedthesentenceas onenotincludedbyvirtueofanygrammaticalconstructioninanylargerlinguisticform Sentencesmaybeclassifiedalongtheinterestingdimensionsofstructureandfunction Thetraditionalapproachpresentsabinarydivisionintermsofstructureasfollows simpleSentencecomplexnon simplecompound Thefunctionalapproachgivesaframeworklikethis yes nointerrogativeindicativewh declarativeSentencejussive 弱祈使 imperativeoptative 祈愿句 Somelinguistsarenowinterestedinthecommunicativefunctionofutterancesandlabelvarioussentencesas statement question command request confirmation etc Basedonwordclasses Bolinger 1969 reportsfivebasicsentencetypes a nominal intransitiveverbaleg Motherfell b nominal copula complementeg Motherisyoung c nominal transitiveverbal nominaleg MotherlovesDad d nominal transitiveverbal nominal nominaleg MotherfedDadbreakfast e There existential nominaleg Thereistime Quirketal 1972 introducessevensentencetypesaccordingtothegrammaticalfunctionsoftheconstituentsinvolvedinasentence a SVCeg Maryiskind Maryisanurse b SVAeg Maryishere Maryisinthehouse c SVeg Thechildislaughing d SVOeg Somebodycaughttheball e SVOCeg Wehaveprovedhimwrong afool f SVOAeg Iputtheplateonthetable g SVOOeg Shegivesmeexpensivepresents Recursiveness Thoughitmainlymeansthataphrasalconstituentcanbeembeddedwithinanotherconstituenthavingthesamecategory RECURSIVENESShasbecomeanumbrellaterm underwhichmaybebroughttogetherseveralimportantlinguisticphenomenasuch
溫馨提示
- 1. 本站所有資源如無特殊說明,都需要本地電腦安裝OFFICE2007和PDF閱讀器。圖紙軟件為CAD,CAXA,PROE,UG,SolidWorks等.壓縮文件請下載最新的WinRAR軟件解壓。
- 2. 本站的文檔不包含任何第三方提供的附件圖紙等,如果需要附件,請聯(lián)系上傳者。文件的所有權(quán)益歸上傳用戶所有。
- 3. 本站RAR壓縮包中若帶圖紙,網(wǎng)頁內(nèi)容里面會有圖紙預(yù)覽,若沒有圖紙預(yù)覽就沒有圖紙。
- 4. 未經(jīng)權(quán)益所有人同意不得將文件中的內(nèi)容挪作商業(yè)或盈利用途。
- 5. 人人文庫網(wǎng)僅提供信息存儲空間,僅對用戶上傳內(nèi)容的表現(xiàn)方式做保護(hù)處理,對用戶上傳分享的文檔內(nèi)容本身不做任何修改或編輯,并不能對任何下載內(nèi)容負(fù)責(zé)。
- 6. 下載文件中如有侵權(quán)或不適當(dāng)內(nèi)容,請與我們聯(lián)系,我們立即糾正。
- 7. 本站不保證下載資源的準(zhǔn)確性、安全性和完整性, 同時(shí)也不承擔(dān)用戶因使用這些下載資源對自己和他人造成任何形式的傷害或損失。
最新文檔
- 文化旅游產(chǎn)品市場的開發(fā)與銷售策略探討
- 個人信息安全及網(wǎng)絡(luò)保護(hù)知識普及
- 2025至2030中國彈簧式無針噴油器行業(yè)項(xiàng)目調(diào)研及市場前景預(yù)測評估報(bào)告
- 學(xué)生看衛(wèi)國戍邊英雄紀(jì)錄片心得體會
- 2025至2030中國自動鋼化玻璃行業(yè)發(fā)展趨勢分析與未來投資戰(zhàn)略咨詢研究報(bào)告
- 2025至2030中國自動揀選機(jī)行業(yè)發(fā)展趨勢分析與未來投資戰(zhàn)略咨詢研究報(bào)告
- 2025至2030中國腿部定位墊行業(yè)市場深度研究及發(fā)展前景投資可行性分析報(bào)告
- 2025至2030中國脫鹽塔行業(yè)發(fā)展趨勢分析與未來投資戰(zhàn)略咨詢研究報(bào)告
- 2025至2030中國脂肪醇烷氧基化物行業(yè)市場占有率及投資前景評估規(guī)劃報(bào)告
- 2025至2030中國膠輪地鐵行業(yè)產(chǎn)業(yè)運(yùn)行態(tài)勢及投資規(guī)劃深度研究報(bào)告
- 軍標(biāo)類型整理文檔
- 山東中醫(yī)藥大學(xué)2020-2021學(xué)年內(nèi)科護(hù)理學(xué)試題及答案1
- 公司制成檢驗(yàn)記錄表
- DB32T 4174-2021 城市居住區(qū)和單位綠化標(biāo)準(zhǔn)
- 基本原理與性能特點(diǎn)多自由度電磁軸承課件
- Q∕SY 1836-2015 鍋爐 加熱爐燃油(氣)燃燒器及安全聯(lián)鎖保護(hù)裝置檢測規(guī)范
- 北京輸變電工程標(biāo)準(zhǔn)工藝應(yīng)用圖冊(圖文并茂)
- 儀器使用記錄表
- 石河子大學(xué)化學(xué)化工學(xué)院學(xué)院綜合測評方案-理學(xué)院
- 《汽車電工電子技術(shù)》全套教案(完整版)
- 國家職業(yè)技能標(biāo)準(zhǔn) (2021年版) 嬰幼兒發(fā)展引導(dǎo)員
評論
0/150
提交評論